Grammar
1. Nouns
2. Pronouns
3. Verbs and Verbals
4. Adjectives and Adverbs
5. Prepositions and Conjunc-
tions
6. Phrases
7. Clauses
8. Sentences
9. Glossary of Grammatical
Terms
Usage
10. Diagnostic Tests
11. Subject and Verb Agree-
ment
12. Pronoun and Antecedent
Agreement
13. Reference of Pronouns
14. Case of Pronouns
15. Principal Parts of Verbs
16. Tense of Verbs
17. Mood
18. Adjective and Adverb Us-
age
19. Preposition and Conjunc-
tion Usage
20. Achievement Tests
Capitalization
21. Use of Capital Letters
Punctuation
22. Diagnostic Test
23. The Comma
24. The Semicolon
25. The Colon
26. The Apostrophe
27. Quotation Marks
28. Achievement Tests
29. The Period
30. Exclamation Points and
Question Marks
31. The Dash
32. The Hyphen and Syllabifi-
cation
33. Parentheses and Brackets
34. Italics
35. Abbreviations
36. Numbers
The Word
37. Use of the Dictionary
38. Pronunciation
39. Spelhng
40. Vocabulary Growth
41. Provincialisms
42. Colloquialisms
43. Idioms
44. V-ulgarisms
45. Improprieties
46. Slang
47. Triteness
48. Jargon
49. Concrete and Specific
Words
50. "Fine" Writing
51. Wordiness
52. Euphony
53. Figurative Language
54. Glossary of Misused Words
The Sentence
55. Period Fault
56. Comma Fault
57. Fused Sentences
58. Misuse of Dependent
Clauses
59. Related Ideas
60. Rambling Sentences
61. Choppy Sentences
62. Incompleteness
63. Word Order
64. Split Constructions
65. Dangling Modifiers
66. Mixed and Illogical Con-
structions
67. Comparisons
68. Parallel Structure
69. Point of View
70. Coordination and Subordi-
nation
71. Emphasis
72. Variety
73. Achievement Tests
The Paragraph
74. Topic Sentence
75. Substance of a Paragraph
76. Methods of Development
77. Order of Ideas
78. Transitional Devices
79. Proportion and Length
80. Mechanics of the Paragraph
The Whole Theme
81. Choice of Topic
82. Outlines
83. Beginnings and Endings
84. Manuscript Form
85. Revision and Proofreading
The Research Paper
86. Using the Library
87. Choosing the Topic
88. Taking Notes
89. Preparing the Outline
90. Writing the Paper
91. Making Footnotes
92. Making a Bibliography
The Precis and
the Paraphrase
93. The Precis
94. The Paraphrase
Writing for Special Purposes
95. Business Letters
96. Report Writing
97. Social Letters
Listening and Thinking
98. Backgrounds of Writers
and Thinkers
99. Testing Your Logic
100. Propaganda Technique
Appendix
101. Taking Tests
102. Sentence Analysis
and Diagraming
McGraw-Hill
HANDBOOK
OF ENGLISH
VIRGINIA SHAFFER
Head of English Department, Forest
Park High School, Baltimore, Mary-
land; Coordinator of Writing, Mc-
Coy College of The Johns Hopkins
University
HARRY SHAW
Formerly Director, Workshops in
Composition, New York University
Second Edition
WEBSTER DIVISION, McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY
St. Louis New York San Francisco Dallas Toronto London
COPYRIGHT ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We wish to thank these authors, pubhshers, and other holders
of copyright for permission to use the following excerpts from
copyrighted materials:
The excerpts from Sportsmanlike Driving. Reprinted by permis-
sion of the American Automobile Association. ^ The excerpt
from High Jimgle, by William Beebe. Reprinted by permission
of Duell, Sloan and Pearce, Inc. ^ The excerpt from My Sister
Eileen, copyright 1938, by Ruth McKenney. Reprinted by per-
mission of Harcourt, Brace and Company, Inc. and Rupert Hart-
Ltd. i^ The excerpt from Anything Can Happen, by
and Helen Papashvily. Reprinted by permission of Harper
rs. i^ The excerpt from This I Remember, by Eleanor
Reprinted by permission of Harper & Brothers and
n and Company. «^* The excerpt from We Took to the
y Louise Dickinson Rich. Copyright 1942, by Louise
^n Rich. Reprinted by permission of J. B. Lippincott
pany and Willis K. Wing, i"" The excerpt from Mirror for
Man, by Clyde Kluckhohn. Copyright © 1949 by the McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc. Reprinted by permission of the
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. ^^ The excerpt from Affairs
of Dame Rumor, by Dav^d Jacobsen. Reprinted by permission
of Rinehart & Company, Inc. '^" The excerpt from "How to Stay
in College," by Robert U. Jameson. Reprinted from the Saturday
Evening Post article by permission of the author. ^' The excerpt
from Science Remakes Our World, by James Stokley. Reprinted
by permission of Ives Washburn, Inc.
Certain parts of this book have previously been copyrighted
under the titles Writing and Rewriting (1955) by Harry Shaw
and The Harper Handbook of College Composition (1957) by
George S. Wykoff and Harry Shaw and are reprinted with the
kind permission of Harper & Brothers, New York.
McGraw-Hill HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH
Copyright (c) 1960 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Copyright 1952 by Harry Shaw and Virginia Shaffer. All Rights
Reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This book,
or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form without
permission of the publishers.
IX
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 59-10723
CONTENTS
Preface vii
Guide to Exercises x
Grammar 1
1. Nouns
2
2. Pronouns
8
3. Asserting Words: Verbs and Verbals
11
4. Modifying Words: Adjectives and Adverbs
24
5. Joining Words: Prepositions and Conjunctions
27
6. Phrases
29
7. Clauses
37
8. Sentences
46
9. Glossary of Gramm
atical Terms
52
jUsage |
10. Diagnostic Tests in Usage 64
11. Subject and Verb Agreement 70
12. Pronoun and Antecedent Agreement 84
13. Reference of Pronouns 91
14. Case of Pronouns 97
15. Principal Parts of Verbs 112
16. Tense of Verbs 122
17. Mood 129
18. Adjective and Adverb Usage 134
19. Preposition and Conjunction Usage 143
20. Achievement Tests in Usage 146
iCapitalization I
21. Use of Capital Letters 152
iii
CONTENTS
Punctuation!
22. Diagnostic Test on Commas, Semicolons,
Colons, Apostrophes, Quotation Marks 161
23. The Comma 164
24. The Semicolon 192
25. The Colon 197
26. The Apostrophe: Possessives and Plurals 201
27. Quotation Marks 208
28. Achievement Tests on Punctuation 212
29. The Period 216
30. Exclamation Points and Question Marks 217
31. The Dash 218
32. The Hyphen and Syllabification 220
33. Parentheses and Brackets 222
34. Italics 224
35. Abbreviations 226
36. Numbers 227
I The Word!
37. Use of the Dictionary 231
38. Pronunciation 242
39. Spelling 244
40. Vocabulary Growth 259
41. Provincialisms 268
42. Colloquiahsms 268
43. Idioms 269
44. Vulgarisms 273
45. Improprieties 273
46. Slang 274
47. Triteness 275
48. Jargon 278
49. Concrete and Specific Words 280
50. "Fine" Writing 282
51. Wordiness 285
52. Euphony 289
CONTENTS
53.
Figurative Language
291
54.
Glossary of Words and Expressions
Often Misused
292
iThe Sentence 1
55.
Period Fault
307
56.
Comma Fault
309
57.
Fused Sentences
312
58.
Misuse of Dependent Clauses
314
59.
Using Only Related Ideas in a Sentence
316
60.
Rambling Sentences
317
61.
Choppy Sentences
318
62.
Incompleteness
319
63.
Word Order
322
64.
Split Constructions
327
65.
Dangling Modifiers
329
66.
Mixed and Illogical Constructions
337
67.
Comparisons
339
68.
Parallel Structure
342
69.
Point of View
348
70.
Coordination and Subordination
350
71.
Emphasis Through Position and Arrangement
352
72.
Variety of Sentence Structure
355
73.
Achievement Tests on the Sentence
360
iThe Paragraph |
74.
Topic Sentence
364
75.
Substance of a Paragraph
369
76.
Methods of Paragraph Development
370
77.
Order of Ideas
374
78.
Transitional Devices
378
79.
Proportion and Length
381
80.
Mechanics of the Paragraph
382
iThe Whole Theme 1
81.
Choice of Topic
383
82.
Outlines
387
CONTENTS
83. Beginnings and Endings of Themes 396
84. Manuscript Form 396
85. Revision and Proofreading 397
JThe Research Paper |
86. Using the Library 398
87. Choosing the Topic of a Research Paper 407
88. Taking Notes 410
89. Preparing the Outline 414
90. Writing the Paper 415
91. Making Footnotes 417
92. Making a BibHography 421
[The Precis and the Paraphrase |
93. The Precis 422
94. The Paraphrase 424
[Writing for Special Purposes |
95. Business Letters 425
96. Report Writing 439
97. Social Letters 446
[Listening and Thinking
98. Backgrounds of Writers and Thinkers 453
99. Testing Your Logic 456
100. Propaganda Techniques 462
[Appendix [
101. Taking Tests 469
102. Sentence Analysis and Diagraming 480
Index 491
vi
PREFACE
The McGraw-Hill Handbook of English, Second Edition,
is designed to help the student build the skills he needs to
express himself with clarity, ease, and appropriateness. It
describes American English as it is actually used by careful
speakers and writers and shows why some kinds of expres-
sion are considered more effective than others. In addition
to stating the facts about language that educated people
must know, this book emphasizes the importance of clear
thinking as an essential both to effective expression and to
intelligent reading and listening. Types of faulty thinking
are analyzed and exercises are provided to develop the
student's ability to recognize and avoid such errors in his
own writing and speaking.
This new edition of the McGraw-Hill Handbook of Eng-
lish contains a number of new features which the authors
believe will enhance the usefulness of the book. A new
format employing a second color gives increased promi-
nence to rules, principles, and section numbers. Expanded
sections on levels of usage, the use of the dictionary, and
report writing provide materials for instruction and refer-
ence essential to the student's work in English and his other
studies as well. A section on taking tests acquaints the stu-
dent with the form and content of college entrance and
placement tests and shows him ways in which he can im-
prove his performance. A comprehensive review of sentence
diagraming brings together in one place all of the principles
of sentence analysis and provides the explanations and prac-
tice sentences the student needs to master them.
vii
PREFACE
This book makes a completely functional approach to
grammar, usage, and mechanics. Rules are clearly stated,
illustrated, and immediately applied. Abundant drill ma-
terial enables the student to familiarize himself with im-
portant principles and helps him to see how they apply to
his own writing.
The natural-sounding practice sentences in the McGraw-
Hill Handbook of English greatly simplify the task of both
teacher and student. These sentences were not written
solely to embody an error. They are drawn from more than
seven thousand student themes analyzed for this purpose.
Often these sentences appear in the form of a paragraph
on safe driving, travel, or an illuminating incident from the
life of a literary figure, so that the student adds to his knowl-
edge and broadens his cultvu-al outlook as he studies his
grammar.
The authors make a special effort to pro\'ide for different
levels of instruction. The drill that follows each major prin-
ciple is arranged in two sections. The first begins with easy
sentences and moves on to the kind of sentences that nor-
mally appear in careful student writing. The second section
provides sentences of greater maturity. These may be used
for superior students or for review with students who have
mastered the simpler sentences. Thus, the teacher who
wishes to use homogeneous grouping can readily do so.
In recognition of the fact that language changes, the
authors of the McGraw-Hill Handbook of English, Second
Edition, have scrutinized every explanation, illustrative
example, and practice sentence to ensure its appropriate-
ness in a handbook reflecting modern American usage.
While making clear that the standards of Enghsh change
with the needs of those who use it, the authors are careful
to remind the student that at any given time there are
standards. This book describes fully and accurately the
standards of written English today.
VIRGINIA SHAFFER
HARRY SHAW
viii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
For assistance in preparing the manuscript, the authors
are indebted to a number of people. Miss EHzabeth Con-
nelly, former Head of the English Department at the Patter-
son Park High School in Baltimore, and Mrs. Thea Hodes,
former teacher of superior children at School No. 49 in Bal-
timore, read parts of the manuscript and offered valuable
advice on the adjustment of the material to suit the needs of
students of varying ability. Mrs. Philip Edwards, Director
of Young People's Work at the Enoch Pratt Free Library,
and her assistants gave invaluable help in locating illus-
trative paragraphs in books popular with young people.
Miss Bernice Wiese, Supervisor of School Libraries in Balti-
more, examined the section on the use of the library. Sug-
gestions from Mr. Simeon Round, Mrs. Anna Bloom, and
Mr. Ellis Newton on "The Theme" and "The Research
Paper" have been incorporated in the revision. The authors
are grateful to all these people and to the students at the
Forest Park High School and at McCoy College of The Johns
Hopkins University, who have made helpful suggestions
while using the materials in this book.
IX
GUIDE TO EXERCISES
Asterisks indicate key exercises and achievement tests.
Grammar — adjectives, recognition of, 25; adverbs, recog-
nition of, 26; clauses, * achievement test on kinds of, 44-45;
recognition of adjective, 39-40; recognition of adverbial,
41-42; recognition of noun, 43-44; nouns, capitahzing, 2;
feminine of, 3; nominative and objective case of, 7; plurals,
3; phrases, ^achievement test on kinds of, 36-37; recogni-
tion of adjective, 33-34; recognition of adverbial, 34-35;
function and recognition of noun, 31-32; sentences, choppy,
51-52; combining simple, 51-52; kinds of, 49-50; ^variety
in, 51-52; verbs, principal parts of, 14; verbals and, 17.
USAGE — '^achievement tests in, 146-151; adjectives and
adverbs, 135-136, 141-143; ^agreement, pronoun and an-
tecedent, 87-90; subject and verb review, 80-84; verb and
single subject, 72-73, 76-77; verb and compound subject,
78-79; ""case, of personal pronouns, 99-102, 104-105; of
relative pronouns, 108-112; diagnostic tests, 64-69; lie and
lay, 121-122; like and as, 145; prepositions and conjunctions,
145; pronoun, reference of, 94-97; sit and set, 122; '^ tense,
sequence of, 126-128; verbs, past tense and past participle,
118-120; review, 128-129; subjunctive, 132-133.
CAPITALIZATION— *capitoZzzafion, 157-159.
PUNCTUATION— flbbreDiaiions, 227; ^achievement tests
in, 212-215; "^apostrophe, 205-207; capital letter and comma
review, 176-177; colon, and review with semicolon, 198-
GUIDE TO EXERCISES
201; comma, with appositives and limiting expressions, 188-
189; before coordinate conjunction, 165-168; after intro-
ductory element, 170-172; with nonrestrictive expressions,
183-184; with parenthetical expressions and terms of ad-
dress, 178-180; review, 186, 187, 190-92; in series, 174-176;
dash, 219; diagnostic tests, 161-164; end, 220; hyphen, 222;
italics, 225; numbers, 228-229; parentheses and brackets,
223-224; quotation marks, 211-212; semicolon, 194-196,
WORD — diction, alliteration and rhyme, 290-291; choice
of, 276-277; *review of choice, 287, 302-4306; simple, 284-
285; specific words, 281, 282; dictionary, 243^247; "fine"
writing, 284-285; idiom, 271-272; prgon, 279-280; pro-
nunciation, 243-244; spelling, 245-248; adding suffixes, 256-
258; of plurals, 254; spelling lists, 248-251; vocabulary, of
business words, 261-262; of foreign words, 263; growth,
260-261; matching exercises, 265-267; of medical terms,
264; of musical terms, 264; of scientific terms, 264; words
that are similar, 246, 247; ^wordiness, and wordy, 286-289.
SENTENCE — achievement test on elective sentences, 360-
363; analysis and diagraming, 489^90; comparison, 340-
342; clauses, errors in the use of, 315; emphasis, 354-355;
illogical constructions, 338-339; modifier, * dangling, 330-
332, 333, 334-336; 'misplaced, 324-327; 'parallel structure,
344-348; sentences, balanced, 355; choppy, 319; effective,
352; fused, 312; incomplete, 309, 321-322; loose and peri-
odic, 354; review (incomplete, "run-on," fused), 312-314;
"run-on," 311; unity in, 317, 318, 319; variety in, 358-360;
shifts in construction, in verb tense, 349-350; split construc-
tions, 329; word order, 324-327.
PARAGRAPH — ^coherence, through order of ideas, 375-
377; through transitional expressions, 380-381; letters, in-
coherent, 377; topic sentence, 367, 373-374; "^ unity in, 368.
xi
GUIDE TO EXERCISES
WHOLE THEME— *^^^^'^^^> 392-395.
RESEARCH PAPER— *^^^^«^!/. use of card catalogue, 401;
use of Readers' Guide, 406; use of reference books, 402;
limiting topic, 409; note taking, 412, 414.
PRECIS AND THE PARAPHRASE— F^cfs and para-
phrase, 423-424.
WRITING FOR SPECIAL VURVOSES— betters, *bread-
and-butter, 450; formal invitations and replies, 447; friendly,
452; 'informal invitations and replies, 450; order, 438-439;
*request for adjustment, 439; sympathy, 450; *thank-you,
450; report writing, 445.
LISTENING AND THINKING— "" listening, background
of speakers or writers, 454-455; propaganda techniques,
464; name-calling, 464; thinking, about advertisements, 464;
logic in, 459^61, 466-467; in reading statistics, 466.
TESTS — achievement in effective sentences, 360-363;
achievement in punctuation, 212-215; achievement in us-
age, 146-151; College Entrance, 476-479; completing anal-
ogies, 474-476; kinds of clauses, 44-45; kinds of phrases,
36-37; punctuation diagnostic, 161-164; usage diagnostic,
64-69; vocabulary, 470-473.
xu
Grammar
Grammar is not a static thing. It changes and grows as
men put new life into it, and it has different levels for
different occasions. In the casual English of informal con-
versation, many people today are using "It's me," or "Drive
slow"; but these forms would not, of course, appear in
formal writing.
Grammar is for use. The definitions and explanations
given in this part of the book are valuable only when they
help the student to write and speak more effectively. Be-
cause the types of words defined here function in many
different kinds of sentences, it is important to remember
that a given word is not always used as the same part of
speech. It may be a noun in one sentence, a verb in
another, an adjective in a third. How a word is used
determines what part of speech it is.
Sailing is my favorite sport. (Noun)
We were sailing across the bay. (Verb)
Far off we could see a small sailing vessel. (Adjective)
In the pages that follow, the essential principles of gram-
mar are reviewed. If there has been some tendency to permit
variations of the forms commonly accepted as correct, these
variations are presented.
A glossary of grammatical terms appears on pages 52-
61. If any grammatical terms used in this book are un-
familiar to you, turn to the glossary.
1
■ CI^IS NOUNS
1. NOUNS
la. Definition.
A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.
man, officer, Thomas Jefferson, park, street, desk, team,
courage
lb. Kinds of nouns.
A common noun is the name of any one of a class of
persons, places, or things. It is not written with a capital
letter.
horse, child, garden, alley, tub, book, engineer
A proper noun is the name of a particular person, place,
or thing. It is written with a capital letter. ( See Section 21g. )
General Grant, President Lincoln, Patterson Park, Linden
Avenue, Soil Conservation Service
An abstract noun is the name of an idea or a quality apart
from any object.
honesty, intelligence, grace
A collective noun names a group of persons or objects.
class, crowd, army, fleet, family
Note: Abstract nouns and collective nouns are usually
common nouns.
EXERCISE 1
Identify the proper nouns in the following list and write
them with a capital letter on a separate sheet of paper.
company maryland southern high
high school north school
secretary english l^ir^g
2
NOUNS
Ic-d
tuesday
junior
1c. Number.
general electric
company
house of repre-
sentatives
automobile
lincoln park
doctor
Nouns may be singular or plural. If a noun names one
person, place, or thing, it is singular in number. If it means
more than one, it is plural in number. Field is singular;
fields is plural.
EXERCISE 2
Study Section 39d. Then on a sheet of paper write the
correct plural form of each of the following words:
tomato
lady
sister-in-law
phenomenon
James
Id. Gender.
Nouns have four genders: masculine (man, boy), feminine
( woman, girl ) , and neuter ( desk, road ) . When a noun may
be either masculine or feminine, it has common gender
(person, playmate, companion).
woman
pony
piano
valley
sheep
alumnus
chief
canoe
wolf
knife
EXERCISE 3
Write on your paper the feminine form (or equivalent)
of each of these nouns:
nephew
alumnus
tiger
executor
lion
policeman
master
duke
patron
emperor
salesman
host
king
marquis
actor
drake
poet
gander
■ ©^B NOUNS
1e. Case.
Nouns have tliree cases: nominative, objective, possessive.
Nouns in the nominative and objective cases have the same
form: boy (nominative), boy (objective). The possessive
case requires an apostrophe ( boys' ) or an apostrophe and 5
(boy's). (See Section 26.)
If. Uses of nouns in the nominative case.
The most important uses of nouns in the nominative case
are the following:
1. Subject of a verb. (See Section 3.)
S. V.
The storm caught the ship in mid-ocean.
s. V.
Suddenly the winds roared in a great blast of fury.
V. s.
Across the deck swept huge waves.
S. V. s.
The passengers rushed to their cabins when the waves
V.
rolled over the deck.
2. Predicate noun, also called predicate complement,
predicate nominative, or subjective complement. (See
Section 14b.)
A predicate noun is a noun used in the predicate (see
Glossary of Grammatical Terms) to point back to the sub-
ject. It follows the verb be ( am, is, are, was, been, be, were )
or some other linking verb ( become, seem).
s. V. p.n.
Jerry is the hoy to play halfback.
s. V. p.n.
The Anwricans are the people who have led the struggle
for liberty.
s. V. p.n.
Those girls were the winners of the basketball tourna-
ment.
NOUNS
19
s. V. p.n.
The man on the witness stand seemed a person of hon-
esty.
3. Noun in direct address. ( See Section 23f . )
Bruce, will you ride to the canyon with me?
4. Noun in an absolute expression. ( See Section 72e. )
Night having fallen, we camped near the trail.
5. Appositive with a noun in the nominative case. (See
Section 14j.)
Melody, my horse, saw me from the corral.
1g. Uses of nouns in the objective case.
The most important uses of nouns in the objective case
follow. (For further explanation, see Section 14. See also
Section 4d for adverbial objective.)
1. Direct object of a verb.
We won the game. (Game is the direct object of the verb
won.)
Jean gave a party. (Party is the direct object of the verb
gave. )
2. Indirect object of a verb (object of to or for under-
stood ) .
Shall I give Ted a sweater at Christmas? {Ted is the in-
direct object of the verb. Sweater is the direct object.)
3. Object of a preposition.
Mother brought some souvenirs from Atlantic City. {At-
lantic City is the object of the preposition from.)
4. Appositive with a noun in the objective case. (See
Section 14j.)
We met Mr. Townley, the sheriff.
1h
NOUNS
5. Objective complement, or predicate objective. (See
Section 14i. )
We elected Walter president.
I consider her a good player.
6. Subject of an infinitive. ( See Section 14g. )
I wanted John to go to the movies.
Sally asked the chairman to take a walk with her.
7. Object of an infinitive. ( See Sections 3g and 14h. )
His desire to please the voters was great.
The ship was anchored to save fuel.
8. Object of a participle. ( See Sections 3g and 14h. )
Waving his hat. Rusty galloped down Main Street.
Emily is the girl driving the car.
9. Object of a gerund. ( See Sections 3g and 14h. )
Catching a mustang is not an easy job.
Playing tennis is good exercise.
10. Adverbial objective (noun used as adverb).
The ranch was sold last year.
We stayed home all day.
1h. Uses of nouns in the possessive case.
There are two important uses of nouns in the possessive
case:
1. Before a noun, to show ownership or some other close
relationship that might be expressed by of or for the use of.
The child's ball, his mother, a days journey, members
lounge
2. Before a gerund. ( See Sections 3g and 26h. )
Have you heard about Ruth's winning the contest?
6
NOUNS ■
EXERCISE 4
Arrange the nouns in these sentences in two columns.
Put those in the nominative case in one column and those
in the objective case in another column. Beside each noun,
write the reason why you have listed it as nominative or
objective.
Example:
NOMINATIVE OBJECTIVE
leopard subject zoo object of preposition
Recently a leopard escaped from a zoo in Ohio. Some hunt-
ers had caught the animal on Christmas and shipped it to the
United States for display in a new zoo where the animals were
not confined in cages but were allowed to roam at will over a
wide territory surrounded by deep moats. The animals could
not escape because the moats were too broad for even the
leopard to leap. Or so thought the keepers of the zoo. But this
leopard was a wily beast. He apparently figured the distance
carefully and with a great bound jumped across the moat. From
one end of the country to another, the newspapers carried big
headlines that told of the chase. Armed groups sought him in
the park near the zoo and in the surrounding neighborhood. At
first the superintendent of the zoo wanted the beast to be caught
alive, but after a few hours, the danger seemed so great that
hunters were told to shoot the animal at sight. Because the
keepers considered the leopard to be a very dangerous beast,
they warned the people nearby to keep their children inside
and to look for any evidence that would lead to the capture.
For two days the whole country read the news avidly. Then the
headlines announced that the zoo would try to trap the animal
with food. By this time some people had begun to consider the
zoo and the police to be very ineffectual. Then huge pieces of
drugged meat were placed on the ground near a cage in which
the leopard's mate was held, and the next morning the hungry
animal was found hardly able to stand up because the drug was
so strong. He was seized, and the country relaxed.
7
2a-b
2a. Definition.
PRONOUNS
2. PRONOUNS
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun,
2b. Kinds of pronouns.
There are several kinds of pronouns: personal, relative,
demonstrative, interrogative, reflexive, intensive, indefinite,
and reciprocal.
1. A personal pronoun is a direct substitute for a noun.
Like a noun, it has number, gender, and case. It also has
person. Person is shown in pronouns by a change of form
to indicate the person speaking (first person), the person
spoken to ( second person ) , or a person or thing other than
the speaker and the one spoken to (third person). See the
following table of forms of personal pronouns:
Singular
NOMINATIVE
POSSESSIVE
OBJECTIVE
1st person:
I
my, mine
me
2nd person:
3rd person:
masculine
you
he
your, yours
his
you
him
feminine
she
her, hers
her
neuter
it
its
Plural
it
1st person:
we
our, ours
us
2nd person:
3rd person:
all genders
you
they
your, yours
their, theirs
you
them
Grammatical problems frequently arise from the fact
that, unlike nouns, personal, relative, and interrogative
pronouns have distinct case forms. These problems are
discussed in Section 14.
2. A relative pronoun relates or connects a clause to its
antecedent — the noun to which it refers. The most often
8
PRONOUNS
used relative pronouns are who, which, and that. Who-
ever, whichever, and whatever are less frequently em-
ployed compound forms; whosoever, whichsoever, and
whatsoever have almost entirely gone out of current use.
Who and whoever are the only relative pronouns with
complete case forms. Relative pronouns do not show changes
in form for person, gender, or number. See the following
table of case forms for who and whoever:
NOMINATTVE
POSSESSIVE
OBJECTIVE
who
whose
whom
whoever
whosever
whomever
The choice of a relative pronoun is determined by its
antecedent; the case form for who and whoever is deter-
mined by the way the pronoun is used in the relative clause.
(See Section 14.) Who is used to refer only to persons;
which is used to refer to things (inanimate objects and
animals), and to persons considered as a group; that may be
used to refer to either persons or things.
The flier who served in World War II is now an airline
oflBcial.
Radar equipment which is to be used for small ships
must be installed carefully.
The crew which won the race was excused from classes.
The hat that I bought last summer is now out of fashion.
The man that I saw was named Mortimer Taylor.
3. A demonstrative pronoun points out and identifies. It
has number but no gender or case. The demonstrative
pronouns are this, that, these, those.
This is the way to kick a spiral.
That is my new television set.
These are your books; those on the desk are mine.
4. An interrogative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which,
what, occasionally whoever, whichever, whatever) intro-
9
PRONOUNS
duces a question. The case forms for the interrogative pro-
noun who and the relative pronoun who are the same.
Who shall demand that a pardon be granted?
Which is the route we should take from Hammond?
What do you have in mind?
Whom do you recognize?
5. A reflexive pronoun is used for reference to the sub-
ject of the sentence. It is composed of one of the personal
pronouns plus self or selves: myself, yourself, himself, her-
self, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves. These pronouns
are also called compound personal pronouns. In formal
speech or writing, these pronouns are not used as subjects.
Wrong: Helen, Sue, and myself went on a hike.
Right: His laboratory assistant burned himself.
Right: They appointed themselves as cheer leaders.
6. An intensive pronoun is used for emphasis. Intensive
pronouns and reflexive pronouns have the same form.
Right: The nurse herself was at fault.
Right: We students ourselves are wholly responsible.
7. Indefinite pronouns are somewhat less exact in meaning
than other pronouns. Among the more frequently used in-
definite pronouns are another, any, anyone, anything, every-
body, everyone, everything, few, many, nobody, none, one,
several, some, each. The pronoun one and its compound
forms, and compound forms built on the element -body form
the possessive case in the same way as nouns (anyone's,
everybody's). Indefinite pronouns involve grammatical
problems which are discussed in Section lid.
8. A reciprocal pronoun indicates an interchange of action
suggested by the verb. This interchange may be seen in the
following sentences involving the only two reciprocal pro-
nouns in English:
The two teams complimented each other.
The members of the squad shouted at one another.
10
3a-b
ASSERTING WORDS: VERBS AND VERBALS
3. ASSERTING WORDS: VERBS AND VERBALS
3a. Definition.
A verb expresses action or state of being,
Morgan kicked the ball with all his strength.
Be ready at eight o'clock.
Howard became a statesman and wrote a number of
books.
3b. Kinds of verbs.
Verbs are classified as transitive, intransitive, or linking.
A transitive verb is regularly accompanied by a direct
object.
V. o.
The engineers threw a bridge across the river.
V. o.
The refugees ate bits of bread found on the road.
V. o.
An old woman seized a squawking goose and ran into
the house.
An intransitive verb requires no object.
Automobiles from Paris crept along the roads.
People ran wildly in every direction.
Many verbs can be used in either a transitive or an in-
transitive sense.
We read the news with great care. (Transitive)
We read until late at night. (Intransitive)
I won the first set. (Transitive)
I won easily. (Intransitive)
A linking, or copulative, verb shows the relationship of
the subject to the predicate noun.
Washington was our first president.
My favorite color is green.
11
^^ ASSERTING WORDS: VERBS AND VERBALS
3c. Auxiliary verbs.
Auxiliary, or helping, verbs, such as may, can, must,
would, should, do, did, shall, will, and all forms of be and
have, are often used with other verbs to express particular
shades of meaning — usually of time (see Section 3f) or
voice (see Section 3d). Such combinations are called verb
phrases.
I have known Jerry since the first grade. (Time)
This theme was rewritten three times. (Voice)
Sd. Voice.
Transitive verbs are further classified as to voice — active
or passive.
A verb is in the active voice when its subject performs
the action.
We built a large house in the country.
The engineers Jiave developed new types of electrical
refrigerators.
The Marshall Plan helps the reconstruction of Europe.
A verb is in the passive voice when its subject receives
the action. Notice that some form of the verb be (am, is,
are, was, were, been, be) is used with another verb in the
passive voice.
A large house was built in the country.
The doors were bolted from the inside.
3e.- Mood.
The mood of a verb shows the mood or manner in which
the speaker thinks of the action.
A verb in the indicative mood states a fact or asks a
question of fact.
The farmer planted his crop early.
What time is it?
12
ASSERTING WORDS: VERBS AND VERBALS
A verb in the imperative mood expresses a command.
Clean your room.
Open your books to page 10.
A verb in the subjunctive mood indicates a condition
contrary to fact or a wish. The subjunctive is discussed in
Section 17c-g.
If you were in Europe, you would iind life very different.
I wish I were in the South where it is always warm.
3f. Tense»
Tense indicates the time of the action or state expressed
by a verb.
Every verb has three principal parts which are used as
a basis for the formation of tenses. Many mistakes are
made in usage because people do not understand how to
form these tenses or how to use them. ( See Sections 15 and
16.)
The principal parts of a verb are the present, past, past
participle.''^
'RESENT
PAST
PAST PARTICIPLE
talk
talked
talked
skate
skated
skated
hurry
hurried
hurried
do
did
done
sing
sang
sung
draw
drew
drawn
If the second and third principal parts of a verb add
-d, -ed, or -t, the verb is called a regular verb. Otherwise it is
an irregular verb, and its parts should be memorized. Notice
the irregular verbs in the preceding list.
* A fourth principal part, the present participle, is sometimes also
given. The present participle is made by adding -ing to the present
tense form of a verb: talk, talking. The four principal parts are given
in this order: talk, talked, talked, talking.
13
ASSERTING WORDS: VERBS AND VERBALS
EXERCISE 5
Write the principal parts of each of the following verbs.
Then write sentences using each of these verbs in the past
tense. ( For a discussion of tenses and their use, see Section
16.)
go
drown
lead
come
drink
speak
shrink
sneak
give
tear
show
dive
hide
do
swing
draw
ring
write
freeze
eat
choose
swim
sting
fall
twist
steal
forget
throw
begin
attack
bite
sing
blow
break
beat
wear
3g. Verbals.
Understanding the difference between verbs and verbals
will help you to avoid one of the most serious errors in
writing, the half sentence or fragment. A verb is used as
the simple predicate of a sentence; with the subject, the verb
may make a complete statement. A verbal cannot be used
as a simple predicate of a sentence. ( See Section 55. )
He kicked the ball. (Verb)
Kicking the ball (Verbal)
To kick the ball (Verbal)
There are three types of verbals: participles, gerunds, and
infinitives. (For help in using verbals, see Sections 14k, 16i
and j, and 65. )
1. A participle is a word which has the function of both
verb and adjective. The present participle always ends in
-ing {speaking, singing). The past participle is the third
principal part of the verb. The perfect participle consists
of having or having been plus the past participle (having
spoken, having been driven).
14
ASSERTING WORDS: VERBS AND VERBALS
Notice the past participles in the following list of principal
parts :
PAST PARTICIPLE
walk walked walked
smile smiled smiled
drive drove driven
draw drew drawn
see saw seen
sing sang sung
bring brought brought
Notice that some of the past participles end in -ed and
some in -n; others change the vowel (sung); and still others
change their form completely ( brought ) . The participle can
take an object and be modified by an adverb. When it does,
the group of words taken together is called a participial
phrase. ( See Section 6b. )
The ball kicked by the player went into the stand. (Parti-
ciple used as an adjective)
1 2
The crowd cheering the team could be heard a mile away.
(1: participle used as an adjective in a participial
phrase; 2: object of participle)
1 2
We followed the crowd, cheering lustily. (1: participle
used as an adjective in a participial phrase; 2: adverb
modifying participle)
2. A gerund is a verbal noun. Gerunds have the same form
as present or perfect participles, but are used as nouns
instead of adjectives. A gerund may take an object and be
modified by an adverb or an adjective.
1 2
Discovering the plans of the enemy was the job of the
intelligence service. (1: gerund; 2: object of gerund)
15
ASSERTING WORDS: VERBS AND VERBALS
1 2
Working intelligently is no easy task. (1: gerund; 2: ad-
verb modifier)
2 1
Our music teacher dislikes loud singing. (1: gerund;
2: adjective modifier)
3. An infinitiue is the form of the verb usually preceded
by to.
to walk to observe to have enjoyed
An infinitive may be used as a noun, an adjective, or an
adverb.
My greatest pleasure is to travel. (Infinitive used as noun)
We have four days to spend in Billings. (Infinitive used
as adjective)
Bruce was glad to have come. (Infinitive used as adverb)
Sometimes the word to is omitted from the infinitive.
Let me go with you.
Will you help me pack?
The infinitive may take an object and be modified by an
adverb or an adverbial phrase or clause.
1 2
To reach the mountain we walked twenty miles. (1: in-
finitive; 2: object of infinitive)
1 2
George and I tried to walk faster. (1: infinitive; 2: adverb
modifier)
1 2
The snow began to drift along the slope. (1: infinitive;
2: adverbial phrase modifying infinitive)
1 2
I intend to stay here until you arrive. (1: infinitive; 2:
adverbial clause modifying infinitive)
16
ASSERTING WORDS: VERBS AND VERBALS «9
EXERCISE 6
From the following paragraph, list in one column all
verbs that are used as simple predicates; in another column,
list all verbals. The listing has been made for the first two
sentences.
Verbs Verbal
had to go
liked
had named
Shelley, the English poet, had a tragic death. He liked to go
out on the Mediterranean Sea in a light sailboat which
he had named Ariel. But because he was very unskillful as a
sailor, some of his friends worried about him constantly. Shelley,
however, loved the beauty of the sea and the graceful fashion
in which the boat slipped over the waves. One day, after visiting
some friends, he set out for his home in Lerici in spite of a
warning of a storm. Wishing to protect Shelley, his friend
Trelawny, who was a good sailor, wanted to accompany the
writer in a larger boat named Bolivar; but he had not obtained
port clearance papers, and the port authorities kept him from
leaving. Shelley was in a hurry; so he set out, leaving Trelawny
fuming at the shore. The sailors on Trelawny 's boat, gready
concerned about Shelley, watched the black clouds gathering.
When the storm finally broke, Trelawny, worried about his friend,
tried to get news of him. Meantime, Shelley's wife waited at
Lerici, feeling sure that Shelley could not have been so foolish
as to set out in the storm. Finally she decided to go to Leghorn to
see what had happened to him. Reaching the city, she begged for
news and was told that Shelley had indeed set out just before the
storm. Panic-stricken, Mary made inquiries in every direction, but
getting news of her husband was difiicult. At last she and
Trelawny learned that parts of a wreck had been cast up on the
shore at Viareggio. They still did not give up hope, but several
days later the body of Shelley was washed up on the shore. He
was only thirty years old when he died.
17
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4ci-b
MODIFYING words: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
4. MODIFYING WORDS: ADJECTIVES AND
ADVERBS
4a, Definition of adfective.
An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun.
4b. Uses of adjectives.
By describing or limiting, an adjective makes more nearly
exact the meaning of the word it modifies. Adjectives tell
what kind of, how many, ivhich one. Adjectives are of two
general kinds:
1. Descriptive: a red convertible, an easy job, a broken
window
2. Limiting: the first day, his former roommate, five times
Note: A noun or pronoun in the possessive case may be
considered an adjective since it limits the meaning of another
noun.
The articles a, an, and the are adjectives. A is used before
a word beginning with a consonant sound; an, before a
word beginning with a vowel sound. Remember that it is
the sound, not the spelling, that determines which article
should be used. A word beginning with silent h actually
starts with a vowel. The sound of y before a vowel is a
consonant sound and calls for a, whether the word begins
with y or with a vowel having the sound of y, such as long u.
an apple, an hour, an opportunity, a hero, a European, a
university
An adjective is called a predicate adjective or predicate
complement when it is related to the subject by a linking
verb (be, feel, become, taste, seem, appear, look, sound,
for example ) .
The water felt warm.
24
The com is green.
MODIFYING WORDS: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
EXERCISE 7
In one column, list each word (including verbals) used
as an adjective in this paragraph. In another column, list the
noun that each adjective modifies.
Across a sea that was now turquoise, now emerald, we could
watch the Venezuelan coastline with the purple Andes in the
background. Flying fish stood a moment on their tails, flew a
little distance, and dived back into the sea. The air was still.
The fresh odor of the sea mingled with the heavy smell of
sweat from the stevedores' bodies. In a few moments a dozen
small boats had reached the side of our ship, and their brown-
skinned occupants were slipping into the clear water to find
the money that the passengers had thrown down for them.
4c. Definition of adverb.
An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb
by describing, limiting, or in some other way making the
meaning more nearly exact.
4cl. Uses of adverbs.
An adverb tells how, when, where, why, to what extent.
(Adverbs that tell why are usually in the form of phrases
or clauses rather than single words. See Sections 6 and 7.)
We saw a parade recently. (When)
We certainly did enjoy the music played by the bands.
( To what extent )
Here we saw soldiers from many countries. (Where)
The taxi drove slowly down the street. (How)
If we teU how slowly the taxi drove, we have an adverb
modifying another adverb.
I quite 1
The taxi drove -< very I slowly down the street.
I too
25
4cl
MODIFYING WORDS: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
The following examples show adverbs used to modify
adjectives :
When the day was over, our guide was very tired. (Very
modifies the adjective tired. )
He was almost sick with fatigue. { Almost modifies the
adjective sick. )
Occasionally a noun is used as an adverb. (The use of a
noun is called the adverbial objective.)
After the game we went home.
Neither adjectives nor adverbs should be used profusely..
Overuse of either robs sentences of conciseness and force.
Both adjectives and adverbs can help to make Vxriting spe-
cific and vi\ id. but writing that is heavilv larded with them
is weak and flabby. Particular problems in the use of ad-
jectives and adverbs are discussed in Sections IS and 63.
EXERCISE 8
In one column on your paper, list each word (including
verbals) used as an adverb in the following paragraph. In
a second column, list the word that each adverb modifies.
Have you read Tlie Ancient Mariner? Many very interesting,
stories are told about the author of the poem, Samuel Cole-
ridge. Among them are some particularly good tales of the poet's
love for talking. One day Coleridge met Lamb walking rapidly to-
work and stopped to talk to liim. Lamb, who was hurrying tO'
reach his job on time, moved awav; but Coleridge quickly
grabbed the button of liis listener's coat and insisted upon finish-
ing his story. For a few minutes Lamb waited patiently, but
Coleridge was apparently preparing for a long talk. Presently
Lamb took a knife from his pocket and carefullv cut ofi: the
button that Coleridge was holding. That evening Lamb, return-
ing from work, saw Coleridge still holding the button and still
talking vigorously.
26
JOINING WORDS: PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTIONS
5ci-b
5. JOINING WORDS: PREPOSITIONS
AND CONJUNCTIONS
5a. Definition of preposition.
A preposition is a linking word used to show the relation-
ship of a noun or pronoun to some other word in the
sentence. It is usually followed by an object.
5b. List of prepositions.
Here is a list of common prepositions:
about
before
down
oflf
above
behind
during
on
across
below
except
over
after
beneath
for
through
against
beside
from
to
along
between
in
toward
among
beyond
like
under
around
by
near
upon
at
concerning
of
with
ome prepositions are composed of more than one
according
to because of
in front of
ahead of
by means of
in place of
as far as
contrary to
in spite of
back of
in addition to
instead of
The meaning of a sentence is sometimes confused if
prepositions are not used correctly in combination with
other words. (See Section 43.)
Between is used when two are considered.
Among is used when more than two are considered.
I must choose between dancing and tennis.
The money was divided among six heirs.
Note: In casual speech, between is sometimes used when
more than two are considered.
27
Sc-d
JOINING WORDS: PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTIONS
Beside means next to.
Besides means in addition to.
The most popular boy in school sits beside me in French.
What are you studying besides English and math?
5c. Definition of conjunction.
A conjunction is a linking word used to connect words or
groups of words in a sentence.
Sd. Kinds of conjunctions.
Coordinating conjunctions join words or groups of words
of equal rank; for example, and, but, for, or, nor.
Certain coordinating conjunctions used in pairs are called
correlative conjunctions. Most frequently used of these are
either . . . or; neither . . . nor; both . . . and; whether
. . . or.
Subordinating conjunctions join dependent clauses to
main clauses; for example, if, as, since, because, although,
while, so that, when. ( See Section 7. )
Note: Certain adverbs are used as connectives. They are
called conjunctive adverbs. Examples are however, more-
over, nevertheless, therefore. (See Glossary of Grammatical
Terms and Section 24b.)
In good writing, conjunctions must be chosen with care
in order that they may show the exact relationship be-
tween ideas. Often a careless ^^^:iter will use and where
the relationship of clauses needs to be more accurately
expressed, probably by use of subordination. Notice how the
emphasis and meaning differ in these sentences:
The search for the chemical formula has been rewarding,
and further investigation will make the rewards even
greater.
Although the search for the chemical formula has been
28
PHRASES V9d
rewarding, further investigation will make the rewards
even greater.
Common errors in the use of conjunctions are discussed
in Sections 19a-c, 23a-c, and 70.
The conjunction is the seventh kind of word, or part of
speech, that you have studied so far. There are eight parts
of speech altogether. The seven parts of speech that you
have studied are nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs,
prepositions, and conjunctions. The eighth part of speech is
the interjection, which is simply an exclamatory word with
little relation to the rest of the sentence. It is the least im-
portant of the eight parts of speech.
Oh, must you go? (Oh is an interjection.)
Here, alas, our good fortune came to an abrupt end. (Alas
is an interjection. )
6. PHRASES
6a. Definition.
A phrase is a group of related words which does not con-
tain a subject and predicate and which functions as a single
part of speech. It is important to know how to use phrases
because their position in a sentence often determines the
meaning. (See Section 63b.)
There has been much discussion of the new slum-clearing
project in school.
The position of the phrase in school makes this sentence
indicate that slum-clearing took place in school. Actually,
the sentence should read:
In school there has been much discussion of the slum-
clearing project.
Understanding the use of phrases also helps one to learn
to punctuate correctly. ( See Section 23. )
29
6b
PHRASES
6b. Kinds of phrases.
Phrases often contain a preposition, a participle, a gerund,
an infinitive, or a uerfo. ( See Section 3g. )
Prepositional phrases: to the dance, by my club, between the
boys, of the tickets, at the end of the
road
Participial phrases: running a mile quickly, playing basket-
ball, scratching his head, overcome by
gas, exhausted after the journey
Gerund phrases: visiting the animals, selling tickets, kick-
ing the ball, playing tennis, preparing a
report
Infinitive phrases: to play the game well, to sing a song,
to walk a mile, to see the circus, to
shout loudly
Verb phrases: have written, would have dived, am
beginning
Notice that a phrase may contain another phrase. In the
prepositional phrase at the end of the road, the object of
the preposition at is modified by another prepositional
phrase. Also, in the participial phrase exhausted by the
journey, the participle is modified by a prepositional phrase.
Notice, too, that phrases containing present participles
and those containing gerunds look alike. The use of such a
phrase in a sentence determines whether it is a participial
or a gerund phrase. (See Section 3g. )
Phrases (except verb phrases) are used as nouns, ad-
jectives, OT adverbs. Prepositional phrases are generally
used as adjectives or adverbs; participial phrases, as adjec-
tives; gerund phrases, as nouns; infinitive phrases, as nouns,
adjectives, or adverbs. In some types of writing, it is de-
sirable to expand a word into a phrase; in other types it is
better to contract the phrase into a word. A knowledge of
phrases helps to give variety to sentence structure.
30
PHRASES
Noun phrases:
To manufacture automobiles was a great undertaking.
(Infinitive phrase as subject)
Cranking the old 1910 model was a risky business.
(Gerund phrase as subject)
Many manufacturers tried to develop mass production.
(Infinitive phrase as object of tried)
The next step was to invent a self-starter for the automo-
bile. (Infinitive phrase as predicate nominative. Notice
that the infinitive phrase contains a prepositional
phrase, for the automobile. This prepositional phrase is
used as an adjective and modifies self-starter. )
The plan to develop a self-starter caused tremendous ex-
pansion in the industry. (Infinitive phrase as apposi-
tive)
EXERCISE 9
On your paper, write the noun phrases that you find in
the following sentences. Beside each phrase, write the kind
of phrase (infinitive or gerund) and its function in the sen-
tence ( subject, object of verb, and so on ) .
Example :
I. Hearing soft music: gerund phrase — subject
1. Hearing soft music makes me sleepy.
2. Planting a garden is good fun.
3. He hates studying his lessons.
4. We decided to pay his way.
5. I want to play a harp.
6. Making a wise decision is not an easy task.
7. Collecting stamps gave Morris many pleasant experiences.
8. I always enjoyed feeding the animals at the circus.
9. Leaving her family in a foreign country worried Alice a great
deal.
10. Shirley's decision to marry David upset her family very
much.
II. Harold's greatest ambition was to make the football team.
31
PHRASES
12. To build a prosperous business had been his aim since
childhood.
13. My uncle wants to go to Australia.
14. The custom here is to go to bed early.
15. Jerry's plan to start a chicken farm surprised the whole fam-
ily.
16. Later, the Japanese started to make their own motion pic-
tures.
17. Running a large farm taught him to accept life philosophi-
cally.
18. The big problem now is to provide adequate parking space.
19. The guests began to open their presents.
20. He wanted to join the club, but getting in was very difficult.
21. She soon learned to keep house, to knit, and to sew.
22. His hobby, restoring old furniture, later became a profitable
business.
23. Arthur's chief desire was to be a successful farmer.
24. Some nations try to prevent psychological aggression.
25. Going to concerts in Boston gave Howard a new interest in
music.
Adjective phrases:
Adjective phrases, like adjectives, modify nouns or pro-
nouns.
The bodies of early automobiles were high and open.
(Prepositional phrase used as adjective modifying sub-
ject)
Women wearing long dusters and goggles sometimes
drove the cars. (Participial phrase used as adjective
modifying subject)
We had few opportunities then to buy a car. (Infinitive
phrase used as adjective modifying object of verb)
One day we saw an early model stalled on the road.
(Participial phrase used as adjective modifying object
of verb. Notice that the participial phrase includes a
prepositional phrase, on the road. The prepositional
phrase is used as an adverb and modifies stalled.)
32
6b
PHRASES
EXERCISE 10
On your paper, write the adjective phrases in the fol-
lowing sentences. Classify each phrase and tell what it
modifies. Do not list separately prepositional phrases used
as parts of other phrases.
Example:
I. Singing a gay song: participial phrase — modifies peasant
1. A peasant singing a gay song trudged past us.
2. "Adonais" is a tribute to the memory of John Keats.
3. Sue bought a new dress to wear to the party.
4. Ichabod saw a strange object coming toward him.
5. There was ample time to finish the work.
6. The snowshoe rabbit has very large feet covered with soft
white fur.
7. I should like a position in the saxophone section of the band.
8. Exhausted by the day's labor, he slept soundly.
9. Having beaten Southern High, we hoped to win the city
championship.
10. There was a knock on the door, and a man of huge propor-
tions entered.
II. You must break the lock on the cabinet and get the materials
needed for the play.
12. The magazine made an effort to improve the morals of the
community.
13. Caird, endorsed by the political machine and sponsored by
liberal groups, saw his picture everywhere.
14. The election of a new legislative body has produced a shift
in the balance of parties.
15. A man wearing a long, loose overcoat and carrying a cane
entered the room.
16. Rex Hunter, making his start with the Royals, pitched his
first game today.
17. The theater houses the Royal Players, sponsored and sup-
ported by the government.
18. We saw a number of students taking the examination for a
civil service job.
33
«b
PHRASES
19. Discussion of the controversial public-housing issue excited a
committee of aldermen today.
20. People trying to get new automobile licenses formed a long
line in front of the office of the Automobile Commissioner.
Adverbial phrases:
Adverbial phrases modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
Yesterday a woman fell on our sidewalk. (Prepositional
phrase modifying verb fell)
She fell hard enough to sprain her ankle. (Infinitive
phrase modifying adverb enough)
She was easy to lift. (Infinitive phrase modifying adjec-
tive easy)
Restrictive and nonrestrictive phrases:
If a phrase is essential in order to explain or identify the
word to which it refers, the phrase is called restrictive. If
the phrase is not absolutely necessary, it is called non-
restrictive. Nonrestrictive phrases are always set oflE by
commas from the remainder of the sentence.
The citizens' committee gains in political stature.
In this example the adverbial phrase is restrictive because
it tells the particular way in which the committee gains.
The citizens' committee, gaining in political stature, be-
gan to demand reforms within the city government.
Here the adjective phrase is nonrestrictive because it is
not essential to the writer's purpose in telling what the
committee began to demand. See Section 23h for further
discussion and examples of punctuation for restrictive and
nonrestrictive modifiers.
EXERCISE 11
On a sheet of paper, write the adverbial phrases in the
following sentences. Classify each phrase and tell what it
34
PHRASES ^^
modifies. Do not list separately prepositional phrases used
as parts of other phrases.
Example:
I. To South America: prepositional phrase — modifies flew
in a jet plane: prepositional phrase — modifies flew
1. He flew to South America in a jet plane.
2. Suddenly, out of the darkness came an octopus.
3. During my spring vacation I took a trip with five friends.
4. George left home to seek his fortune.
5. I passed my driver's test and aided my father by delivering
orders.
6. Lately, I have used a budget to keep my money in order.
7. Mr. Upton was walking down the street with a neighbor
when the accident occurred.
8. The soldiers advanced in mass formation, while the guerrillas,
concealed behind trees, fired at them.
9. On the eve of the wedding, the bridal company was en-
tertained by Mrs. Barton Remsen.
10. In Ecuador, dogs wander through the churches and sleep on
the floor on hot afternoons.
II. The natives wear hibiscus blossoms in their hair and colored
leaves in their arm bands.
12. The report is too complicated to be handled by the secretary.
13. By using screens, one can protect the plants from the cold.
14. Around the house we planted a hedge high enough to keep
the world outside.
15. Schools have recently introduced courses in driver education
to teach boys and girls how to drive.
16. In these days, it is very important to learn driving techniques
because traffic is complicated by speed,
17. Teen-age youths who take risks to show off before their
friends are in many cases the direct cause of an accident.
18. At five o'clock this afternoon there was an accident near
Washington Boulevard.
19. It was caused by a boy of nineteen who wanted to show
some friends how fast his car could go.
20. His car was smashed to pieces, and several people were
seriously injured by the collision,
35
PHRASES
6c. Achievement test on phrases.
On your paper write all the phrases except verb phrases
from the following sentences. Beside each phrase, write the
kind of phrase and its function in the sentence. Do not list
separately prepositional or verbal phrases used as parts of
other phrases.
Example:
I. Knitting socks for the Red Cross: gerund phrase — subject
1. Knitting socks for the Red Cross consumed a great deal of
her time.
2. Discharged from the army, the young man decided to go
back to college.
3. Airmen have found the eagle flying 9,750 feet above the
earth.
4. Plastics are becoming very popular in factories producing
household objects.
5. Men working on the project will be research workers of wide
experience.
6. The first step in the investigation is to isolate the cold virus.
7. The company has tried to improve conditions, but it has
been blind to obvious problems.
8. He practiced law for three years and then joined the editorial
staff of a large newspaper.
9. The man's main objective is to write stories about ordinary
people.
10. Young people driving cars must learn to respect the law.
II. Finally, exhausted from fighting, he was sent to California
for a rest.
12. Besides running a candy business here, Ted Saunders has
started two stores in a nearby town.
13. The company employed a group of men whose job was to
look for flaws in the garments finished by weavers.
14. At that time, no school in America would admit a woman
to study medicine.
15. On the second floor of the building is an auditorium seating
three hundred people.
36
CLAUSES
7a-b
16. The house, decorated with flags and bunting, was ready
for the carnival.
17. Attracted by the noise, Sue left her room and hurried into the
street.
18. Annually an American mother is chosen by the Mothers'
Day Foundation to set an example for other mothers in the
United States.
19. The native village has bamboo houses along irregular streets,
the smell of oil everywhere, derricks enveloped in a haze of
smoke, and the never-ceasing throb of engines.
20. Aiming at a medium-income group, the manufacturers plan
prefabricated houses to cost $10,000.
21. To build these houses is a problem in mass production.
22. Plarmed on a single pattern, the houses are provided with
some variety through wings, porches, and garages.
23. The builders work hard to get the house under a roof in
a single day, but accomplishing the task is not always pos-
sible.
24. Selling these houses often requires high-powered salesman-
ship, but the salesmen try to meet all objections to stand-
ardization.
25. Special lessons in selling techniques are given to all em-
ployees of the company.
7. CLAUSES
7a. Definition.
A clause is a group of words which has both subject and
predicate. (See Section 23 for punctuation of clauses.)
7b. Kinds of clauses.
An independent {main, principal) clause makes a com-
plete statement and may stand alone; that is, it makes rea-
sonable sense if the remainder o£ the sentence is omitted.
I listened to a radio program.
Although I should have been studying last night, I
listened to a radio program.
37
CLAUSES
Sometimes there may be more than one independent
clause in a sentence.
John studied, but I listened to a radio program.
A dependent, or subordinate, clause cannot stand alone.
It depends upon the rest of the sentence to complete its
meaning; it is subordinate. A dependent clause usually be-
gins with a relative pronoun (such as who, which, that) or
a subordinating conjunction (such as if, as, since, because,
although, while, when, where, until).
Dependent clauses:
although it is raining
when I saw him
if I learn to drive
who would go with us
Dependent clauses may be used as adjectives, adverbs,
or nouns. According to its use as one of these parts of
speech, a dependent clause is called an adjective clause,
an adverbial clause, or a noun clause.
1. Adjective clauses are usually introduced by a relative
pronoun (who, which, that) or by a subordinating con-
junction (when, where, why). Sometimes, however, the
relative pronoun is omitted. When omitted, the relative
pronoun that could introduce the clause is said to be un-
derstood. A clause introduced by a relative pronoun is also
called a relative clause. ( See Section 23h. )
The convertible which you wanted has been sold. (Ad-
jective clause modifying convertible)
I told him the reason why I was not coming. (Adjective
clause modifying reason)
The man whom you recommended has done an excellent
job. (Adjective clause modifying man)
He is a boy I never admired. (Adjective clause modifying
boy; relative pronoun whom omitted)
38
CLAUSES
EXERCISE 12
From the following sentences list the adjective clauses
and tell what word each adjective clause modifies. Some
sentences may contain no adjective clauses.
1. The automobile radio which I ordered on Saturday has not
arrived.
2. Most of the listeners to soap operas are housewives, who
take a great interest in serial stories.
3. The fire started in the hotel coffee shop, which was closed.
4. Flames were discovered coming from the elevator shaft in
the rear of the hotel.
5. Today I interviewed a young woman who wishes to become
a lawyer.
6. He just came back from Indiana, where he spent his Easter
holiday.
7. Henry became acquainted with the soldiers who were
stationed at a nearby camp.
8. Of all the good times that I had during vacation, I enjoyed
our hay ride and barn dance the most.
9. In front of the stage was a pit where men stood to see the
play.
10. The modem novel presents a picture of almost every aspect
of human fife.
11. Jane Austen wrote novels of manners, of which Pride and
Prejudice is the most famous.
12. Mrs. Henry McClintock discussed the data which she had
presented at the last meeting.
13. They must find a house in which they can live on a greatly
reduced income.
14. There was a group of outlaws who endangered the lives of
the people in the community.
15. A relative invited the boy to his home, where the youth
found many enjoyable books.
16. This has been a period in which conversation has received
fittle attention.
17. The road is a part of a main highway and leads eventually
to the sea.
39
CLAUSES
18. The time when she was to leave came quickly, and she took
a boat for the country that she had never seen.
19. The motion picture advances rapidly, with little time that is
not filled with mystery and intrigue.
20. The speaker urged parents to encourage a child who is
skillful with his hands to become a satisfied craftsman
instead of a second-rate white-collar worker.
21. The story tells of a family that inherited a house with sinister
memories and of a spell which haunted all people con-
nected with the place.
22. Dr. Downs reported briefly on the work of the jail commit-
tee which was appointed by the mayor on February 14.
23. The younger members of a Chinese family must pay every
respect and show every courtesy to the older members.
24. A man who i's an expert driver seldom needs to slam on his
brakes, because he is alert to all driving conditions.
25. The country road where we took our driving lessons has
become a broad highway filled with cars.
2. Adverbial clauses may express nine relationships.
Tijne (when, before, while, since):
When a boy drives a car, he must learn certain rules of
the road. (Clause modifies verb must learn.)
He will watch pedestrians carefully while he is driving.
(Clause modifies verb will watch.)
Place ( where, wherever ) :
After finding the book where 1 had left it, I hurried back
to the house. (Clause modifies the gerund finding.)
I am willing to go ivherever we can find good fishing.
(Clause modifies the infinitive to go.)
Manner ( as, as if ) :
He kicked the apple as if it were a hall. (Clause modifies
the verb kicked. )
Condition {if, so, unless, provided that):
If ijou have the blouse in blue, I will buy it. (Clause
modifies the verb ivill buy.)
40
CLAUSES
Cause ( because, as, since ) :
The train, three hours late because the engine had broken
down, was crowded with troops. (Clause modifies the
adjective late. )
Purpose ( in order that, so that ) :
We worked hard all day so that the house would be
pretty for the party. (Clause modifies verb worked.)
Result ( that, so that, so . . . that ) :
The pile of driftwood mounted, so that soon we were able
to start a blazing beach fire. (Clause modifies verb
mounted. )
We were so hungry that we ate the stale crackers. (Clause
modifies adjective hungry.)
Degree or comparison (than, as much as, as ... as,
just as):
John climbed farther than you did. (Clause modifies ad-
verb farther.)
Concess^ion (though, although):
Although the Socialists lost seats in the election, they re-
ceived a large popular vote. (Clause modifies verb re-
ceived. )
EXERCISE 13
Write the adverbial clauses found in the following sen-
tences and tell what each adverbial clause modifies. Some
sentences may contain no adverbial clauses.
1. As they reached a shady spot in the road, the cars stopped.
2. Before he started on the camping trip, he bought a new
sleeping bag.
3. We reached camp just as the sun was setting.
4. When school was dismissed for the summer vacation, I
immediately got a job in an ofiice.
5. If you do not want any of the colors mentioned, we shall
be glad to take your order for another shade.
41
CLAUSES
6. One day while he was taking undersea pictures oflF the coast
of Lower CaUfomia, he encountered a huge porpoise.
7. Although he has always been pleasant, I do not like him.
8. During the last few days, it has rained so hard that the
wheat has been ruined.
9. I never had a bicycle until I earned the money to buy one.
10. If you wish additional information concerning my character
or ability, you may get in touch with Mr. Horace Brown.
11. The mayor has been so successful that he has been elected
six times.
12. We worked for ten hours in order that the job might be
completed.
13. After he was graduated from high school, he entered the
University of Maryland.
14. Although he did not score, he made the best play of the
game.
15. Speaking with quiet confidence, the statesman urged his
country to cooperate with the rest of the world.
16. In the period from 1200 to 1600, famines were common in
Europe because it was difficult to transport food.
17. When the crops failed, people died because they could
not get food from other countries.
18. We have wasted our resources as if we thought the supply
were limitless.
19. If we are not careful in the future, we may again be without
materials necessary for comfortable living.
20. In order that we may preserve some of our wildlife, the
government has set aside national parks and bird refuges.
21. However, these efforts are small, so that very little is ac-
complished.
22. Men are more eager for money than they are for protection
of the country.
23. Since we must help feed the rest of the world, we should
be more careful than we have been in the past.
24. The country has been so mechanized that Americans must
think also of a possible petroleum shortage.
25. When we are no longer willing to waste our resources to
make money quickly, we shall have learned an important
lesson.
42
CLAUSES
3. Noun clauses perform the functions of nouns. A noun
clause is usually introduced by that, what, who, which,
where, when, how, why. It is used as:
Subject: Who is guilty does not concern me.
Object of verb: I hope that you will be able to go to
college.
Object of preposition: We judge a man by what he does.
Appositive: He reached the conclusion that it was
wise to stay out of Newberry. (See Ap-
positive in Glossary of Grammatical
Terms.)
Predicate noun: One serious problem is that there is no
running water. (See Section If, item 2.)
Caution: Occasionally the relative pronoun or the subor-
dinating conjunction that is omitted.
I told him I would go. (7 would go is the dependent
clause. )
I told him that I would go.
EXERCISE 14
On your paper write all the noun clauses that you find
in the following sentences and tell how each noun clause
is used. Some sentences may contain no noun clauses.
1. I promise that I wiU help you.
2. I hope that I can go to the party.
3. He asked how he could get to North Avenue.
4. I do not know what I should tell Edith about the party.
5. One result of my work in literature is that I have developed
better taste in reading.
6. Experiments show that music will decrease the time required
for a job.
7. Success depends, in a measure, upon what characteristics
we inherit from our parents.
8. The fact that it looks like rain has no effect on my decision
to leave today.
9. That we shall win the pennant this year is a foregone con-
clusion.
43
CLAUSES
10. The article says that youth should be taught to be respon-
sible.
11. Who will inherit the money does not interest me.
12. The fact that he had learned scouting saved his life in the
jungle.
13. We are judged by what we say.
14. The President's advisers feel that a cooling-off period in
strike situations is highly desirable.
15. Why you like him is certainly a mystery.
16. He was born just a short distance from the place where he
now lives.
17. A boy brought the message that an urgent call had come.
18. The conclusion is that international responsibility for inter-
nal affairs is cheaper than another war.
19. He said he would try to get to the party.
20. In 1798, a scientist named Malthus warned the world that
the population would outgrow the food supply.
21. Nobody paid any attention to what he said.
22. Everybody thought that the abundant supply of food would
last forever.
23. Now we again receive warnings that our food supply is not
adequate.
24. What we can do to save our remaining resources is an im-
portant problem.
25. That we are wasting our land by bad farming methods is
clear to everybody.
7c. Achievement test on douses.
On your paper, write each dependent clause in the fol-
lowing sentences. Label it noun, adjective, or adverb.
1. He is one of the most skillful locksmiths that 1 have ever
seen.
2. They moved to a farm in Iowa, where they spent fifteen
years.
3. The book would be of great interest to a person who in-
tends to become a journalist.
4. The businessmen knew what was coming.
5. Although she looked like a bright child, she found great
diflBculty in learning to read.
44
CLAUSES
6. The truth of the matter is that he is very lazy.
7. I worked hard all morning so that I might go to the circus
in the afternoon.
8. We spent the weekend at one of those charming inns where
George Washington slept.
9. When a heavy load is put on the llama's back, the animal
simply lies down and refuses to move.
10. She had to get up very early in the morning because she
often had to cook for as many as eighteen people.
11. How the result was achieved is less important than the fact
that it was achieved.
12. Training schools for nurses brought into being the efficient,
immaculate nurse that we take for granted today.
13. The conditions that one found in early hospitals would not
be tolerated for a minute in these days.
14. When she was nineteen, she decided to go to Europe, where
she planned to study medicine.
15. Although she looked delicate and frail, she was not made
of the stuff which shrinks from a disagreeable task.
16. A new plastic material which is now used in surgical dress-
ings pleases the patients very much because it does not
stick to the wound.
17. Another change which has taken place in me is that I enjoy
classical music.
18. Although the field of costume design is crowded, many new
opportunities are expected to develop.
19. I was thinking that we could have a fine time if we were
both accepted at the same college.
20. In the eighteenth century, smallpox was so common that
scarcely anyone escaped from the malady.
21. I hope that Sally will be surprised, because her mother is
working very hard to make the party a success.
22. He reached the conclusion that it would be wise to go to
college before going to law school.
23. Phyllis Grain found that she had married not only a spoiled
husband, but all his relatives.
24. This is one of the most exciting stories I have ever read.
25. Many people who have frequent automobile accidents are
emotionally childish.
45
^•CI^B^ SENTENCES
8. SENTENCES —
8a. Definition.
A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete
thought.
It must have a subject and a predicate. The subject is
the name of the person or thing about which the verb
makes a statement. The predicate is what is said of the
subject; it must contain a verb which completes an inde-
pendent statement. Such a verb is called a finite verb. Re-
member: participles, infinitives, and gerunds are not finite
verbs.
8b. Kinds of sentences.
Sentences may be classified according to grammatical
structure as simple, compound, complex, or compound-
complex.
One of the greatest problems of inexperienced writers
is learning to use the type of sentence which suits the idea
to be presented. They must try, also, not to use the same
kind of sentence too often. (See Section 72.)
A simple sentence expresses one complete thought. The
simple sentence may have a single subject or a compound
subject, a single verb or a compound verb; but all of the sub-
jects must perform the action in all of the verbs.
Ralph plays in the school orchestra. (One subject, Ralph;
one verb, plays)
Ralph and Sally play in the school orchestra and sing in
the glee club. (Compound subject, Ralph, Sally; com-
pound verb, play, sing)
Phrases do not affect the kind of sentence. A sentence
may have many phrases and still be a simple sentence.
They sold their wedding presents in order to get enovigh
money to travel to Europe. (One subject, they; one
verb, sold; simple sentence)
46
SENTENCES
A compound sentence contains two or more independent
clauses. It is really two simple sentences combined by an
appropriate connecting link. This connecting link may be
a coordinating conjunction {and, but, for, or nor) preceded
by a comma. It may also be a conjunctive adverb (however,
moreover, nevertheless, therefore, thus, then, so, yet, other-
wise) preceded by a semicolon. Or the connecting link
may be omitted and a semicolon may be used. The com-
pound sentence is useful when you wish to express two
thoughts of equal value.
Harold went to college for onlv a year, but his sister is
a graduate of Smith. (Two complete thoughts joined
bv hut and a comma)
I signed an application blank from our state university;
however, I am not sure of going there. (Two com-
plete thoughts joined by however and a semicolon)
Sue is prettv; her sister is very homely. (Two complete
thoughts separated bv a semicolon)
A complex sentence contains one independent clause and
one or more dependent clauses.
The sign of the complex sentence is the dependent or
subordinate clause. (See Section 7b.) A complex sentence
is used when one of the two ideas to be expressed depends
on the other to complete its meaning.
(dependent) (independent)
When she was a little girl, she was very much interested
in horses.
(independent) (dependent)
A broken sign hung on the gate, which was partly open.
(dependent) (independent)
When he was ready to make the trip, he had to wait on
(dependent)
Lono; Island because there was bad weather.
47
SENTENCES
Careless writers sometimes make the mistake of using a
subordinate clause as a sentence.
Although my violin is broken.
When the bell rang.
Clearly, these are not complete ideas. They are a part
of a complex sentence.
The compound-complex sentence has characteristics of
both the compound and the complex sentence. It has two
independent clauses, as the compound sentence has, and
at least one dependent clause, as the complex sentence has.
(dependent) (independent)
When the legislature passed a sales tax, many people
(independent)
complained; but the Governor agreed to use much of
the money for improved schools.
Knowing how to use these three kinds of sentences will
help you to give variety, interest, and good form to your
writing.
Sentences are also classified according to meaning and
purpose.
A declarative sentence states a fact or makes an assertion.
The plane has four engines.
An interrogative sentence asks a question.
Do detective movies teach crime?
An imperative sentence expresses an entreaty or com-
mand.
Please come as soon as possible.
Forward, march.
An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feeling.
Oh, if he were only herel
48
SENTENCES *•
EXERCISE 15
On your paper tell whether each of the following sen-
tences is simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex
and give the reason for your decision. For example, sen-
tence 1 is complex because it contains one independent
clause and one dependent clause.
1. He belongs to a club which is composed of famous men in
sports.
2. After hearing his first concert, the child wanted to study
music.
3. From this point one can look across forty miles of the Great
Plains on a clear day.
4. The Bastille was a strongly fortified structure used as a
place of confinement for those who displeased the king or
his court.
5. For six years his hobby has been chemistry, and he has
even constructed his own laboratory.
6. By the end of the year, the building job was begun; but it
did not progress rapidly.
7. The American soldier escaped with the assistance of a Ger-
man youth, to whom he promised a large sum of money.
8. The author is very fond of moralizing and displays this
interest in the book.
9. I have a very bad temper, and after an argument I am in-
clined to sulk and be sarcastic.
10. Your party sounds like great fun, but I'm afraid that I shall
not be able to come.
11. The tickets are to be printed with a perforated section that
can be torn off.
12. The old part of the city, which dates back to the Middle
Ages, was built on the top of a hill; the modem city occupies
the lower slopes and part of the plain.
13. The dance, accompanied by native drums, was a series of
stamping steps in rhythmic patterns.
14. We drove up the mountain, shuddering at each narrow turn
of the road.
15. Everyone said that it would be hard to get reservations at
a hotel, but we didn't have any trouble.
49
SENTENCES
16. Walking into his father's office, he calmly announced his
intention to go to sea.
17. The National Institute of Health has planned a fight against
the common cold.
18. After the graduation, she and her family went to Florida;
they wanted to \ isit her brother, who is in business there.
19. Because of the confidential nature of his work, my cousin
could not sav much about his activities; but he did tell me
that he expected to accompany the Ambassador on an im-
portant diplomatic mission.
20. The death of Pericles symbolized the end of the greatest
period in Athenian history.
21. Time after time, the person who discovers a fire rushes off
in a frenzy of excitement, leaving the door wide open.
22. The people had vigor enough to make an attempt to free
themselves.
23. He was graduated from Notre Dame with a law decree,
but immediately went into journalism.
24. The luncheon-club diet of chicken patties and canned green
peas was too much for him; so he gave up his job as club
reporter.
25. The highlight of the dav's events will be seven races for
speedboats and cruisers, for which the club will ofter tro-
phies worth one hundred dollars each.
EXERCISE 16
Follow the directions in Exercise 15.
1. The captain ordered his men to prepare to move back to
the rest zone at sundown.
2. When my brother landed in Newfoundland, he was aston-
ished to find the meadows filled with daisies and butter-
cups.
3. The resort was crowded with people, and the band kept up
a ceaseless accompaniment to the noise.
4. The native children approached the Americans and held out
their hands.
5. When Joan decided to accompany her aunt to Ocean City,
she looked forward to a good time; but she was not count-
ing on the really superb time that she did have
50
SENTENCES
6. The book is written with a subtle suggestion of satire, as
if the author were trying to criticize in a mild manner the
stuffiness of the period.
7. The client was ushered into the room to await an interview
with the famous lawyer.
8. People who recognize the danger of potential epidemics
recommend a world network of public health stations.
9. He is continually in trouble and has now spent a large part
of his inheritance.
10. Although his composition was rejected for the Prix de Rome
contest, this only served to make Ravel more popular; for
everyone attributed the rejection to petty jealousies, in-
trigues, and politics.
EXERCISE 17
Use your knowledge of clauses and kinds of sentences
to revise the following paragraph. On your paper, rewrite
the paragraph. Remember that short, choppy, simple sen-
tences do not make an interesting style; but when simple
sentences are combined to make compound or complex
sentences, you must be careful not to put too many ideas
together. The ideas which appear in one sentence must be
closely related, and the conjunctions used to join them
must show what the relationship is. (See Sections 59, 60,
and 61.)
Conservation of our resources is an important problem for
the United States. Some farmers and timberland owners waste
their land. They do not know how to use it wisely. Farmers
plant the same crops year after year. The soil loses its richness.
Wise farmers help their land. They plant special crops. These
crops restore nitrogen to the soil. Range lands are another prob-
lem. They are often damaged by overgrazing. Then the animals
do not get enough to eat. The owner must buy commercial feed
The overgrazed land is eroded by the wind. The topsoil is
blown away. A third problem is insects. They eat the crops.
They are hard to control. DDT could be used to kill some of
them. DDT might kill valuable insects. Some of the valuable
insects pollinate fruit trees.
51
^^ GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS
EXERCISE 18 _^
Follow the directions in Exercise 17.
Many high schools today are teaching boys and girls to be
safe drivers. The instructors say a person must be an adult emo-
tionally to drive well. Your little brother shows oflF for company.
He is a baby. He wants to be seen. He hasn't learned to think.
A person who thinks is growing up. He acts on reason. He does
not act as a result of his feelings. A show-off in an automobile
is a baby emotionally. He exceeds the speed limit. He takes
ten people in a five-passenger car. He drives an old car. His
car has bad brakes. He impatiently dashes past other cars on
their right. He is like your little brother. He is showing off for
a crowd. His showing off is more dangerous than that of your
little brother. He may kill people. Little brother merely annoys
people. Some boys are eighteen years old. They are still babies
emotionally. They should not be permitted to drive cars.
9. GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS
In a discussion of grammar and writing, many terms are
used. Sometimes there are several terms which have the
same meaning. If you have trouble with a term, consult
the following pages.
ABSOLUTE EXPRESSION. An absolute expression is composed
of a noun or pronoun and a participle. An absolute ex-
pression modifies no single word in the sentence; rather,
it modifies the sentence as a whole or adds details to the
whole statement.
The tire being flat, we decided to pump it up.
Two hours having elapsed, we again set out on our
journey.
The little boat hugged the shore, its sails flapping in
the wind.
ACTIVE VOICE. A verb is in the active voice when its subject
performs the action.
52
GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS ^JF
ADJECTIVE. A word that modifies a noun or pronoun. It may
be either descriptive or hmiting. (See Section 4b for ex-
amples.)
ADVERB. A word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an-
other adverb. It tells how, when, where, why, or to what
extent. ( See Section 4d. )
ALLITERATION. The usc of Several words beginning with
the same sound. It is usually not a good device to use
in prose writing. At present it is used chiefly in adver-
tising.
Make Money with Munder
Sales Service Simplified
Tasty, Tempting, Tantalizing
ANTECEDENT. The substautivc (noun or pronoun) to which
a pronoun refers.
APPOsiTivE. A substantive added to another substantive to
identify it or explain it. The appositive signifies the same
thing as the substantive it explains and is said to be in
apposition with it.
One important product, rubber, this country had to im-
port. (Rubber is in apposition with product.)
More hardy than wheat are these grains — rye, oats, and
barley. (Rye, oats, and barley are in apposition with
grains. )
An appositive agrees in number and case with the sub-
stantive to which it refers and is set oflF by commas or
dashes unless it is so closely related to the other sub-
stantive that the two words seem part of the same ex-
pression.
My friend Andrew built a sailboat. (The appositive
Andrew is closely related to the noun to which it re-
fers.)
53
^f GLOSSARY^ OF 'OIIA.MMATIGAL TERMS
AtTSffLiAi^v A Vferb used to "help" Another verb in the'^fbr-i^
matiori of tense and voice forms. Be, can, d&, Hdbep frvay,
must, ought, shall, will are examples. ( J^iq-'^s
■■fiL ir-Heiifls gone-'awayfor a visitV:;^orri i£xli b-iO"// A .shhvoa
isi>r You ifiZ? please turn out the light. :il: J :^I .cis/bfi lorijo
We should have been working with the stevedores on
the dock.
CASE. The change of form that a noun or pronoun undergoes
to indicate its relationship to other words in a sentence.
There are three cases in English — nominative, possessive,
and objective.
CLAUSE. A group of words which has a ^uDiect jarid a predi-
cate. ( See Section 7. ) . ., , -J , . . ,^ -j.
COMPARISON. The change in the form of an adjective or
adverb to indicate greater or smaller degrees of quantity,
quality, or manner. The three degrees of comparison are
positive, comparative, and superlative. (See Section ISf.;).
■■■---' - small' ^■---- -'"srtialler-' ^''^ ■'' ' smalle^P ''' V^^^^'-^
ill 90 oiitfes si bn:. 1^55 — i li svii:: i^^^ --b si? grmlj
wisely more wisely mo^t-'#isfeTy^--2 jCtcjB
, qiiickly Jess quickly least quickly
The comparative degree is used; to sho\V jel^ionships
between two persons, objects, or ideas, '-^i /: li
d'iiw fiu'J:;-;ov:qr: ai 3i,g \saVs::5i ban ,?4no ,s\iS) .\!'sVi!id
Fred is taller than I. / orfjrv,r!
This box is less attractive than the other one.
-cii^i -. - ^':',\ ,. '-:/: b:[f; looiiiHi.; lu '&-'^'' sviji2oqc>B a^,
Ine superlative deeree is used to snow relationships
.among three or more: r - , . , , r
•■:' = ': ° jSJfjiOl Vle)r.:oi0 08 ?,I jl 229h"ia ZSflgfiD
-/.s ofiAlIan is the fa/feitDneinhis family; odi Iciii ovbniSjS
This sewing kit is the most attractive of the sixiasvajfeble.
cpi^ii^^^^MENT,- A wftp(^:;C)r expressiqiTj^^^d jt^Qig^flmplete the
-oidj^a,! indicated:. by ahother word or expressiiiai./ A predi-
cate complement may be a substantive ori an adjective
GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS ^
that completes the meaning of the copulative verb. It is
also called the subjective complement, or predicate noun
or adjective.
Mr. Crawford is a salesman. (Substantive used as predi-
cate complement)
Jane is very gay. (Adjective used as predicate comple-
ment)
An objective complement is a noun or adjective that com-
pletes the meaning by telling something about the direct
object. It is also called predicate objective.
They called the dog Jerry. (Noun)
We dyed the dress blue. (Adjective)
COMPLEX SENTENCE. A Sentence containing one independent
clause and one or more dependent clauses.
COMPOUND SENTENCE. A Sentence containing two or more
independent clauses.
COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE. A Sentence containing at
least tw^o independent clauses and one dependent clause.
CONJUGATION. A list or table giving all the forms of a verb
to show mood, tense, number, person, and voice. (See
pages 18 to 23. )
CONJUNCTION. A linking word used to connect words or
groups of words in a sentence. Coordinating conjunctions
join words or groups of words of equal rank; subordinat-
ing conjunctions join dependent clauses to main clauses.
( See Section 5d. )
CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB. An ad Verb used as a connective. It
serves as a link between independent clauses or sentences.
Some conjunctive adverbs are however, moreover, never-
theless, consequently, therefore, thus, then, so, yet, other-
wise.
55
^ GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS
DECLENSION. A Hst Or table giving the different forms of a
substantive to indicate case, number, person, and gender.
When changes in a substantive are thus shown, the word
is said to be declined. (I, my, me)
DIRECT ADDRESS. A noun Or pronoun in direct address is one
that names or refers to the person spoken to.
John, where are you?
When we finish rolHng the court, Fred, we'll stiU have
time for two sets of tennis.
ELLIPSIS. The omission of a word or words necessary to the
grammatical completeness of a clause or sentence. In the
sentences below, the words in parentheses might be
omitted in speaking and writing; without such words
the sentences are called elliptical.
Some of the patriots carried guns, others (carried)
swords, still others (carried) clubs and sticks.
While (we were) drifting downstream, we grounded on
a sand bar.
He was eighteen years of age; his brother, (was) twelve
(years of age).
EXPLETIVE. An expletive is a word used chiefly to introduce
an idea. It and there are commonly used as expletives.
7^ was Alice whom we saw.
It is a truism that men love freedom.
There are four hundred people present.
FINITE VERB. A vcrb that is capable of making a complete
and independent assertion. Finite verbs express tense.
He tvalked to school.
I Jmve finished the job.
Verbals are not finite verbs.
GENDER. The classification of substantives according to sex.
There are four genders: masculine, feminine, neuter, and
56
GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS
common (either masculine or feminine): boy, girl, it,
individual. Nearly all traces of grammatical gender have
disappeared from modern English nouns.
GERUND. A verbal noun. A gerund has the same form as the
present or perfect participle. (See Section 3g. )
Speeding is the most common cause of automobile ac-
cidents.
GRAM^L\R. The science which deals with words and their
relationships to each other. Rhetoric deals with the art
of expressive speech and writing, with the laws of clear,
effective writing; grammar is concerned with the features
of a language and with speech and writing according to
various standards of usage.
IDIOM (idiomatic usage). The manner of expression char-
acteristic of a language. (See Section 43.)
IMPERSONAL CONSTRUCTION. The usc of the pronoun it in a
sentence like this:
It is raining.
INFINITIVE. The form of the verb that is usually preceded
by to (to go, to see).
INFLECTION. A change in the form of a word.
INTERJECTION. An cxclamatory word not grammatically re-
lated to the other words in a sentence.
Oh, that's what you meant.
Heavens! You have broken the vase.
INTRANSITIVE VERB. A Verb uscd in such a way that it does
not require a direct object. (See Section 3b and Transi-
tive Verb in this glossary.)
The poor man trembled as he spoke.
57
^^ GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS
INVERTED ORDER. The arrangement of the words in a sen-
tence so that the whole or a part of the verb precedes
the subject. Inverted order is always used in questions
and in sentences that start with a word expressing or
implying a negative idea. It is sometimes used in sen-
tences that start with other adverbial modifiers.
What do you think?
Seldom have I heard such a fine voice.
Down from the hills came the guerrilla bands.
LINKING VERB. Vcrbs such as appear, seem, smell are link-
ing (or copulative) verbs, which express the relation
between subject and complement.
The other man was his nephew.
That seems inexpensive.
MOOD. The change of form that a verb undergoes to show
the state of mind or manner in which a statement is made.
There are three moods in English: indicative, imperative,
and subjunctive.
MODIFIER. A word that describes or limits another word.
(See Section 4.)
NONRESTRiCTivE MODIFIER. A phrasc or clausc that furnishes
additional information about the word modified but does
not change or restrict its meaning. (See Section 23h. )
NOUN. A word that names something — a person, a place, a
thing, an idea, or a quality.
NUMBER. The change in the form of a substantive or verb
to show whether one or more than one are indicated. ( See
Section 39d.)
Singular: man, boy, lady, knife, he, is
Plural: men, boys, ladies, knives, they, are
5S
GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS ^F
OBJECT. The substantive following a preposition, or the
word, phrase, or clause indicating the thing or person
ajffected by a transitive verb or verbal.
He is in the room.
The carpenters built a house.
He said that he would go.
A compound object consists of two or more substantives
used as object of a verb, a verbal, or a preposition.
The Duanes built the house and the barn. (Compound
object of verb)
PARALLELISM. The use of the same structural form for ideas
of equal value. (See Section 68.)
PARENTHETICAL MATERIAL. Any cxprcssiou that interrupts
a thought and is not necessary for the grammatical com-
pleteness of the sentence in which it occurs. (See Sec-
tions 23e and 33. )
PARTICIPLE. A word which has the function of both verb
and adjective. The present participle always ends in -ing
(speaking, going). The past participle is the third prin-
cipal part of the verb. The perfect participle consists of
having or having been plus the past participle {having
spoken, having been driven). (See Section 3g. )
PASSIVE VOICE. (See Voice in this glossary.)
PERSON. The quality of a substantive or verb that shows
whether it relates to the speaker ( first person ) , the person
spoken to (second person), or another person or thing
spoken about (third person). Nouns do not show person
by changes in form. Finite verbs undergo a few changes
in form to show agreement with their subjects in person.
I read, you read, he reads
59
^^ GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS
PHRASE. A group of related words which does not contain
a subject and predicate and which functions as a single
part of speech. Phrases are classified according to use as
noun, adjective, and adverbial phrases, and according to
form as prepositional, participial, gerund, infinitive, and
verb phrases.
PREDICATE, The part of a sentence which makes an assertion
about the subject. A simple predicate is the verb (or verb
phrase) alone; a complete predicate consists of the verb
with any modifier, object, or other completing word
which it may have.
Mr. Tyler drove the ball nearly two hundred yards.
{Drove is the simple predicate; drove the ball vaadij
two hundred yards is the complete predicate )
PREPOSITION. A linking word showing the relationship of a
noun or pronoun to some other word in the sentence.
(See Section 5a-b. )
PRINCIPAL PARTS. The three parts of a verb (present infini-
tive, past tense, and past participle ) from which all other
forms and uses of verbs (tense, mood, tone, voice) can
be expressed. ( See Sections 3f and 15. )
PRONOUN. A word used in place of a noun. ( See Section 2. )
RESTRICTIVE MODIFIER. A phrasc or clause that restricts or
changes the meaning of the word modified. Restricti\e
adjective modifiers limit the meaning of the word modi-
fied to one paiticular person, place, or thing; they answer
the question "which?" (See Section i23h.)
SENTENCE. A group of words expressing completeness of
meaning. (See Section 8.)
SUBJECT OF A SENTENCE. A substautivc naming the person
or thing about which an assertion is made. A simple sub-
ject is this substantive alone. A coDtplete subject is a
simple subject together with its modifiers. A compound
60
GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS ^^
subject consists of two or more substantives used as sub-
jects of the same verb.
The green house is for sale. (Simple)
The green house is for sale. (Complete)
The green house and two acres of land are for sale.
(Compound)
SUBSTANTIVE. An inclusive term for a noun and all noun-
equivalents. Pronouns, gerunds, noun phrases, and noun
clauses are noun-equivalents. The following italicized ex-
pressions are used as substantives:
The dog was three years old.
They are coming tomorrow.
From New Orleans to Chicago is a long distance.
Did you know that he was here today?
SYNTAX. Construction; the grammatical relations between
words in sentences.
TENSE. The time of the action or of the state of being ex-
pressed by the verb. ( See Section 3f . )
TRANSITIVE VERB. A Verb that requires a direct object to
complete its meaning.
The player hit the ball.
My brother studied the assignment. (See Section 3b.)
VERB. A word expressing action or state of being. (See Sec-
tion 3a-f . )
VERB PHRASE. A Verb together with an auxiliary: shall take,
shall have taken, will have been taken. Distinguish be-
tween a verb phrase and a verbal. ( See Section 3c. )
VERBAL. A verb form used as a noun, an adjective, or an
adverb. (See Section 3g. )
VOICE. The change in the form of a verb to indicate whether
the subject is the performer of the action (active voice)
or is acted upon (passive voice),
61
Usage
Since language is a means of communication, it is impor-
tant to choose the words and the grammatical forms that
will carry to your listener or reader exactly the idea and
emotional tone that you wish to present. Sometimes a stiff,
formal language makes you seem unfriendly. On the other
hand, the use of casual English in an interview for a job
may give the impression that you are not serious about the
work. In an informal conversation with friends, "Who are
you going with?" is acceptable in many groups, but in a
research paper, the appropriate language would be more
formal. Hence, a sentence would read: "The men whom the
Puritans sent to discuss matters with the Governor
were. . . ." Language not only carries thought, but it also
causes an emotional reaction. The words that you choose,
the grammar that is employed in what you say, even the fash-
ion in which your thoughts are put together affect the hearer
or reader. For this reason, it is important for you to know
several levels of language and be able to choose the ap-
propriate one for each occasion. Of course, as you seek the
right expressions, you will avoid those which are illiterate
or vulgar.
In addition to being modified by the broad distinction
between formal and informal language, many rules con-
cerning word usage and grammatical structure are modi-
fied by considerations of time, place, and situation. Lan-
guage is constantly developing. In some of your reading,
62
USAGE pCUff
you will find expressions which were correct and clear in
another period but which are now outmoded. When Rosa-
lind and Celia in Shakespeare's As You Like It enter the
Forest of Arden, Celia says, "I cannot go no further." Today
this double negative would not be used. Sometimes words
appropriate in a certain section of the country may carry
little meaning or sound ridiculous elsewhere. Although
"tote a poke" is quite meaningful in parts of the South,
few New Yorkers or San Franciscans understand the ex-
pression at all. Finally, every area of study develops its own
vocabulary which may mean little to people who have not
studied in the field. Technical expressions, for example, may
be understood only by a limited audience experienced in
industry. It is important, then, if you want your language
to be correct and clear, that you use expressions which are
in current, national, and reputable use.
When you choose a word or a grammatical form, be
careful about your source of information. It is not enough
to say that you have heard the expression used by public
speakers or seen it in a reputable magazine. Advertisements,
newspapers, magazines, broadcasts, or speeches may use
incorrect forms of language. Several examples in print, sev-
eral misuses by famous speakers or writers, several mis-
pronunciations in a national radio broadcast do not make
a word, a grammatical structure, or a pronunciation gen-
erally acceptable.
Although goWf idicli(Ma&ife^ i,hd teuBbotd^f^pSD^iionally
disagree about the labels to be applied to certain expres-
sions, they are still your best guides if you wish to learn
the standard English of today. Your handbook shows you
the formal structure necessary for serious or dignified writ-
ing and speaking and indicates a colloquial or informal
variation when there is an accepted one. A reliable, up-to-
date dictionary records and labels words and expressions.
Remember that the mere entry in a dictionary does not
guarantee that a word is in current reputable use. Your
63
I^^^l DIAGNOSTIC TESTS IN USAGE
dictionary helps you to judge the acceptabihty of a word
by the absence or presence of a "restrictive label" like
archaic, obsolete, illiterate, slang. If the word has no re-
strictive label, it may be regarded as appropriate formal
English. A word labeled "colloquial" is generally acceptable
in informal but not formal speech and writing.
Although much more use is made of informal than of
formal English, there are occasions when educated people
^^'ho have responsible positions must write business reports,
articles for company journals, minutes of club meetings, and
even articles for publication. To such people, a knowledge
of formal English is imperative. The drill in this section
includes experience with both formal and informal English
because in daily living there is a need for both.
Do you say:
"I didn't sleep good last night."
"Jenny met Terry and I at the station."
"One of the pages in my book are tore."
"I was almost froze when I came home from the game."
All these sentences are incorrect. Take the diagnostic
tests in Section 10 to see where you make mistakes. Then
study the pages that will help you to correct your errors.
10. DIAGNOSTIC TESTS IN USAGE
10a. Diagnostic Test I (Sections 11-14).
Here is a chance for you to check your usage habits. All
the sentences in the diagnostic test appeared in the com-
positions of students. Most of the sentences contain at least
one error. On your paper, write the number of each sen-
tence. Beside the number, write the correction or correc-
tions and the reason for each correction. Do not rewrite the
whole sentence unless it is impossible for you to show in
a few words what the correction should be. If the sentence
is correct, write C beside its number. When your paper has
64
DIAGNOSTIC TESTS IN USAGE
lOa
been checked and you know which principles are giving
you trouble, turn to the sections that will explain your
problem.
Examples:
1. Every one of the students have bought their class rings.
2. At one place which we visited were the famous Seminole
Indian Village, the parrot farm, and the monkey jungle.
Correction:
1. has 1. subject and verb agreement
his pronoun and antecedent agreement
2. C
1. The mailing lists contains the names of all the customers
whom we think will be interested in the sale.
2. Every man, woman, and child were lost.
3. Lack of materials and modern equipment discourages nurses
and doctors in many hospitals.
4. The bed of the river was shallow at some places and deep
at others, which would make swimming dangerous.
5. It's hard to keep in touch with girls who you know at camp
but who you do not see all winter.
6. A businessman must be careful not to oflFend anyone, par-
ticularly if their complaint is justified.
7. When people know little about gardening, there's many
mistakes made in planting.
8. The phenomena is observed in almost every country in the
world.
9. I asked Father to let John and I go to New York.
10. The tunnels, Holland and Lincoln, extends under the Hud-
son River and connects Manhattan with New Jersey.
11. Roads are being constantly improved so that the chances of
accidents due to a faulty highway are comparatively few.
12. Before one makes up their mind, they should consider all
the factors involved.
13. I shall be very glad to come to your party because they are
always such fun.
14. While the line was being arranged for the processional, I
was wondering who I'd walk with.
65
DIAGNOSTIC TESTS IN USAGE
15. I think it was her who broke my locker.
16. Why don't you and Marcia meet Dad and I in New York
and go to Maine with us?
17. Each of us are expected to pay for the materials that we
broke.
18. A discussion between you and I will have no results because
neither of us are willing to compromise.
19. Either our buyer or one of our executives is going to London
to obtain English tweeds for our fall stock.
20. Every one of the businesses were taxed heavily on their
excess profits.
21. With my grandmother lives my two cousins, who are four
years older than myself.
22. The chief topic of discussion are the problems caused by
the overcrowding of the colleges.
23. Jerry, whom I noticed was quite good-looking, was coming
toward us.
24. If I had been her, I should not have approved of Bob going
to Europe.
25. On the bed is the skirt and the dress which is to be packed
for the trip.
26. After some deliberation, the Board of Directors reorganized
the business completely, which seemed to Ralph and 1 a
good idea.
27. Please fill in the enclosed application blank and return same
by Monday, June 10.
28. Employment problems is helped by modern machinery be-
cause people who buy them need somebody to work them.
29. It says in this book that it will increase sales if you improve
the English of the salesmen.
30. Either you or I are sure to be the new president of the club.
31. The stenographer who you see in my office was employed
by Mr. Shriver and he in my absence.
32. The inability of an individual to face the problems of mar-
riage sometimes cause them to put off marriage until they
are middle-aged.
33. I thought that Father was going to let Sally and I go to
the movies tonight, which would have pleased us very much.
34. Measles are often serious. Me and my brother had them
when we were children, and they nearly killed us.
66
DIAGNOSTIC TESTS 3Nr;USA.GE
35il Imjthe backfield atjleastxolaie p£ j^b iineaihav'er&^xperJIeiiGe
and speed thati.dS;risiessai>y tot-ieaiTyrlthg-ipigddntodys^ the
goal lineio:*- jr-il] hloi sa;; (r3fi'// isd :loo:Ie evBd biuo'j I .?
S6£sM.ost' Amerieanff^read'^^tlie newsp&p€irs, findritgisjthqreifefe.to
excellent means of spreading propagandaarb fit niui mo
SJ.lThe stewards of labof unions caal ;write> a 'iie|)erfe agalfM ffia
bosses which he feels is not following jthe^^&irtraoti. JieJ
38. The number ol-peojdeiivhoisi4ccfeediinlth^vHHea3tfqworic aBre
.'(isbviery small.: -■;■■" ^hd 9u8 ■■loloob '^!rll -(ol bns^ bluodz sVV .9.
89.'. The following de5criptid)i^.togethjei with thei'Hr^wingsJ p£fe^
sent a master plan for the development q£ air akpoStxi;
40. The direction of othd run\feayS diaVeebeen dfecidiedfafbeir'a) ccfc
siderationcif the/prevailiiig; winds, fio/ hose fuQ. 1 norlW .21
41. The gardener whotoil ; hoped waoffladrfi the TOH:lciJwaS sfek
today. .19\ 'Jiag v/sxi isrl siov/ i'aaBfi nsIsH .hi
42. I'm 5ure it; wasn!fehifnBv^ficm^ jtm.'sa.m'a.hGieDA^sm&DlA ,SI
43. Mrs. Bingham is [the 'biilyi one of the iWojneHilwho Ihate
reached their:' quotsa.oiq si as :rio'// oj 'jUb eb\^' I rkiv/ I .T [
44. Between you and/Iyth-ersffiiwiH^alwaysfbe aofriendl)ei^liriy.
4^ :;l3ieD CEfflapany.vthirik^s :that jwboeveii) yoiaiJchBrojfedssa ifepiid-
sentative will do a good job. .?2j;orl silj 00 Ihooph
46.;'TJhis is the boy whom youi said-syjpn'ihougM migl^t^© wefl
in the job. .sr>53m ^ovs ev^rd yarlj eisSo Imedil jaora edi
47. ^Freedom' ©f Jthe f&-e£si anidlofiffsabrieidssemb^ifdiQifjlottSeclS-
sarily mean that equal opportunity for theifexpressionief all
Sib :opimonSjare.^ayailabl«ccJ z:d .fj--] v;i ,:-i-i:.'V- ziil gniflain!''! .fiS
48. Please give these books to whoever calls for them.ofbjii
49. Y3EXQhavK'befen:IhEE© longer: ;thanjHefoaiid)«^^ kmTmS&
s.'iT'.'CeHtipeiArti iiernaolBa edi jiiguBj 8nc;:2&I 3?; d -'•■ " ' lO snO .i-2
50. Are you one of those people who listens to a spsaci^i-adic
SB >l5Jrj(jgcajriD®Mecy ^Ijgiis sdj Jog fjo>( jBflJ bBig bbw siua I .2S
.bib ijoy
10b. Dmgnost^j^.7^f^^|^^(|e^}]^^g^§:-lJ?)^^3^_^^ _qo
.iBgsI balbnBii
difficult, teen-agers would be more better preparg^BlPo^'^i^^-
danger. ' ^ jj ^^gfi qj ^9^10
3. Really, if I were you, I'd get out of here in a hurry.
od
67
lOb
DIAGNOSTIC TESTS IX USAGE
4. Most of the actors in the picture were unknown, but they
performed hke they were seasoned stars.
5. I could have shook her when she told that story.
6. Not paying much attention to where we were at, we missed
our turn in the road.
7. When the boy attempted to pay his fare, he found that he
left his wallet at home.
8. I suppose we all talk foolish when we are excited.
9. We should send for the doctor; Sue has felt badly all day.
10. Leaving Oklahoma City at eight in the morning, we arrived
in Tulsa at noon.
11. Come quick; Mary has broke the window.
12. When I first seen you, I thought you were Dick.
13. Booth always does his work neater than Sarah.
14. Helen hasn't wore her new suit yet.
15. Moving to Delaware, we built a large stone house.
16. I am living on this same street for thirty years.
17. I wish I was able to work as rapid as you do.
18. This batch of candy doesn't taste as well as the last.
19. If he had not had the title searched, he would have lost his
deposit on the house.
20. Get your Home Magazine by taking advantage of one of
the most liberal offers they have ever made.
21. Graduating from high school in 1938, he took a job as an
apprentice in a machine shop.
22. Finishing his work, he put his book away and turned on the
radio.
23. The party would of been gayer if you had been there.
24. One of the first lessons taught the salesmen is how to write
legible.
25. I sure was glad that you got the engine started as quick as
you did.
26. The J.V. team is doing pretty good this year.
27. There must be a new trial because this one has not been
handled legal.
28. After laying asleep for an hour, Toby jumped up and began
to bark.
29. The radio was so low that we had to set right beside it in
order to hear it.
68
DIAGNOSTIC TESTS IN USAGE
lOb
30. John has a tremendous appetite; last night he must have
eat six ears of corn.
31. That dark face powder makes you look like you have jaun-
dice.
32. I cannot study without you turn off the radio.
33. Suddenly, this here dark-complexioned man strikes the boy
in the face.
34. The manager explained to Mrs. Pentz that he already wrote
her two letters.
35. Since my tsvelfth birthday I was able to save an average of
ten dollars a month.
36. At the end of the year he planned an escape. After all the
details were thought out careful, he breaks out of prison
and flees to the jungle.
37. He discovered that she was a girl from his own city, who
eloped years before with a guardsman in her father's regi-
ment.
38. On the way home, we sang all the songs that we learned
at camp.
39. Many times I have wished that I was able to visit the
famous cities of Europe.
40. You should of saw Jake's face when the teacher sent Iiim
to the principal.
41. 1 intended to have gone fishing with my brothers.
42. I move that Robert sings a solo.
43. Beginning to build the house five months ago, we finally
completed the job today.
44. When she returned from her vacation, I asked Edith what
she did in Puerto Rico.
45. I should have liked to have gone to the play, but I sure was
too sick to move.
46. I could have swore it was Hal I seen in the di-ugstore.
47. The cobra is the most deadliest snake in the world.
48. To compete with the raihoads, airlines have lowered their
rates considerable.
49. The television commentator said that the ship had sank at
9:45.
50. Byron swum the Hellespont to prove that Leander could
have swam it, as the legend said he had.
69
SUBjElcrp ANl> VERB AGREEMENT
11. SUBJECT AND v^RB 4gi^f:i;M|:N;T^
1 la.^ A Verb must agree wifn its sub|ecf in persoriraricr
number. ., , t, ,- ■ - '"'"', .^
(See Section 3.) It may, however, assert a condition or a
state; The verbs l^ie'^nldieieM a^seirt -a^^^e^^ a state.
Because action words stand out clearly in a sentence, it is
easy to begin the gfamifiaticaraiialj^sik of a sentence by
finding tl^ie verb. Then look for the person or thing about
which Ij^e, verb makes a statement. When you find it, yoii
have the subject. A subject is always either a noun, a, word
Oil group, of vWQ?!^%.1^4 if s g jio^%iOr;^iPT^iWun.y,h aII ,"£
.'jr. ", rn
In the precedingosenteriGe,5tfee subj€i(ft)tand; the ivQjt) sacB
easy to find, but in some sentences the subject eomesjafter
the verb or is separated from the verb by other words.
Before you try to make the verb agree with the subject,
be sure that you have'ffle'real subject. Then dedde whether
it is singular or pluraJ, Errors in verb forms iire frequently
made in the use of the present teijse". In -this tense, verbs
in the thu-d person smgular end in rs: verbs in the ihird
person plural do not usually end.in, -S*.- (If you are uncer-
tain about the person and nwm^er, con,sult Sections Ic and
2b. ) Remember that used as subjects, I aii(^.we ^e the forms
for the first person; yoti, fpir .the segon^, person;? /i^i shp,^i,
and they, for the third person. .ovocn oJ ;:oi? oo7
The first dance helps us to pay f or X;^instmas Daskets'fdr
the poor. (The noun chance is third' person kingulaf.
The verb helps is also third person singular.) ' * '^'^'
The boys invite the pledges to the first fobtb^lP '^ame.
(Boys is third person plural. Thfe" v8i:h'^mvit^^il aM>
third person plural.) .c^.ri
I invite a difi^erent girl for each dance. '^?W fff§f person
singular. The verb invite is also first p^'bff sfii^iilar. )
70
SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT
Note: Don't means do not. It is used correctly with plural
subjects and with I and you as singular subjects. Be careful
not to use it with a third person singular subject like he,
the chair, the flower, Henry. With such subjects use doesn't.
Wrong: He don't play tennis.
Right: He doesn't play tennis.
The car doesn't need washing.
Jack doesn't seem to make friends very easily.
lib. There and here are not subjects.
After there and here we usually find the verb first and
then the subject.
Wrong: There is dances every Friday night at the community
center.
Right: There are dances every Friday night at the community
center.
Wrong: There comes the boys on the football team.
Right: There come the boys on the football team.
Wrong: Here is the tickets for the dance.
Right: Here are the tickets for the dance.
11c. A prepositional phrase that follows the subject
does not affect the number of the verb.
Phrases such as of the men, in the various groups, to my
sisters are called prepositional phrases. The important words
in a prepositional phrase are a preposition (to, for, from,
with, by, in, between, of, near are some common ones)
and a noun or pronoun which is the object of the preposi-
tion. Do not make the verb agree with the object of a
preposition.
Wrong: Personnel managers from the Stark Company interviews
boys in our senior class every year. (The word Com-
pany is the object of the preposition from. Managers
is the subject.)
Right: Personnel managers from the Stark Company interview
boys in our Senior class every year.
71
11c
SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT
Wrong: One of the boys preside at each meeting.
Right: One of the boys presides at each meeting.
Wrong: The owners of the campus store jokes with all the
students.
Right: The owners of the campus store joke with all the stu-
dents.
EXERCISE 1
The following sentences illustrate Sections lla-c. Many
of them contain errors in subject and verb agreement. On
your paper write the number of the sentence with which
you are working. Then write the subject of each incorrect
verb in the sentence and the correct form of the verb. If
the sentence contains no errors, write the number of the
sentence and put C after it. Some of the sentences may have
two errors.
1. Since there is over 65 million motor vehicles in the country,
the problem of parking space is a tremendous one.
2. A review of our catalogues show that our new manager has
improved the stock.
3. Recently the houses on our street were reassessed.
4. Smog and smoke damage to merchandise and buildings
reaches a figure of five billion dollars a year.
5. Near the community center is three large department stores.
6. The lack of police protection at dangerous intersections re-
sult in accidents.
7. One of the boxes of books are missing.
8. Misunderstandings between students and players were the
cause of the fighting;.
9. One of our problems with night football are the behavior
of the spectators who do not go to our school.
10. Eleventh-hour attempts by a local businessman to keep the
team in the city has failed.
11. In these days one out of every five married women work.
12. Suddenly out of the woods comes two hunters with a pow-
erful dog.
13. If Irving don't drive carefully, he will be arrested.
72
SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT lICl
14. Movies have a much larger screen than television and, as
a result, is easier on the eyes.
15. From the center of the city to the three neighboring towns
runs a magnificent expressway.
16. One of my friends think that speeding in an automobile
shows how grown up he is.
17. Sue don't think we should go to the movies tonight.
18. The pleasant working conditions in modern offices helps to
make stenography attractive.
19. News of world events are very important to us, as is the
daily happenings in our own city.
20. Large sums of money is awarded to some of the contestants
on television shows.
lid. Singular pronouns require singular verbs.
These pronouns are singular: each, everyone, everybody,
anyone, anybody, someone, somebody, no one, nobody, one,
many a one, another, anything, either, neither.
Wrong; Each ©f the boys play some game well.
Right: Each of the boys plays some game well.
Wrong: Everyone in the United States were concerned about
the problem of slavery.
Right: Everyone in the United States was concerned about
the problem of slavery.
Wrong: Neither of the Senators show any uncertainty.
Right: Neither of the Senators shows any uncertainty.
Note: The pronoun none may be used with either a singu-
lar or a plural verb, according to the sense of the sentence.
Like some and any, it requires a singular verb when it re-
fers to a quantity and a plural verb when it refers to a
number.
Is there any milk? No, there is none.
Are there any eggs? No, there are none.
In informal or colloquial speech, the plural verb is often
used with everyone or each if these words are followed by
73
PP^W m9 SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT
a phrase that seems to make their meaning plural, but care-
ful speakers and writers follow the rule of agreement and
use a singular verb with everyone or each.
Notice that everyone is written as one word. The ex-
pression every one ( two words ) means "each separate one."
It is usually followed by an of phrase:
Everyone is expected to come.
Every one of us is required to bring a book.
lie. Words joined to a subject by with, in addition fOj
as well as, and including do not affect the verb.
Our allies, as well as the enemy, were sufiFering.
My whole equipment, including fishing rods, tackle, and
'knapsack, u><i5 lost ori the trip. '*! "^^^^B'^^i^ '5' f
11f. A collective noun usually takes a singular verb.
If, however, the individuals of the group are consid-
ered, the verb is plural.
The team fights for victory.
Our class sings very well.
The family disagree on the question of my dates.
11g. For nouns plural in form but singular in meaning,
use a singular verb.
Measles is sometimes serious.
Mathematics is a difiicult subject.
Note:
1. Although authorities differ in their opinions about the
number of some of these nouns, the following are usually
considered to be singular: physics, economics, news, poli-
tics, ethics, mumps.
2. Subjects plural in form, which describe a quantity or
number, require a singular verb when the subject is re-
garded as a unit.
Ten miles is too far to walk.
Two from five leaves three.
74
SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT
3. A title of a book, play, film, painting, musiSalacaai-
position, or other such work is singular. i ji qhjj
The Frogs is a play by Aristophanes.
11h. Fractions and words such as all, none, some will
be singular if bulk or a total number or amount is im-
plied, and plural if individuals are considered.
Three-fourths of the roof is painted.
Three-fourths of the members are here.
All the girls were eager to have a beach party.
All the food was gone.
111. When the word number is used in the sense of
"many" it is plural; when it refers to an arithmetical
number, it is singular.
A number of people are waiting outside.
A number is printed on every ticket.
The number of people who have subscribed is surpris-
ingly small.
Note: When the word number is preceded by the article a,
it is usually plural. When it is preceded by the, it usually
means a unit and is singular.
11j. Be careful of the plurals of foreign nouns. Some
nouns retain the plural forms of the foreign language
from which they have been taken. Though they may
look like singular nouns, they are plural and require
plural verbs. (See Section 39d, item 9.)
Singular Plural
phenomenon phenomena
genus genera
synopsis synopses
alumnus alumni
Synopses of two stories were submitted.
The alumni were in favor of building the stadium.
75
1 He SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT
Note: Data is correctly used as a plural, though many now
use it as a singular.
11k. A verb does not agree with a predicate noun.
The main thing to see is the beautiful gardens.
EXERCISE 2
Most of the following sentences contain errors in subject
and verb agreement. Write on your paper the number of
each sentence and the necessary correction or corrections.
If the sentence is correct, write C opposite the number of
that sentence.
1. Every one of the players on the team have good grades.
2. Mumps have caused a great deal of absence at the Liberty
Heights School.
3. The number of people present for the lecture by Professor
Toynbee was far larger than we expected.
4. Two-thirds of the group want a party right away.
5. A number of states has motion-picture censorship.
6. No decision can be made in the Security Council of the
United Nations unless each of the five members approve.
7. Each of the hunters are permitted by the state game laws
to shoot four ducks.
8. Neither of the plans presented by the committee members
seem practical.
9. Don't you think that economics are harder than anv other
subject we study?
10. Every time that the hero comes on the stage, the audience
sits breathless.
11. Each of our customers receive a monthly statement.
12. Two-thirds of our traflfic regulations has been changed since
we employed a new traffic director.
13. Neither of these points have anything to do with the prob-
lem.
14. Were either of Mozart's parents musically gifted?
15. Some of the girls in our class comes to school with their
hair in curlers.
16. Every one of the plans seem practical, but we prefer the
most economical one.
76
SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT
17. If you decide that either of the plans are acceptable, we
are ready to sign the contract.
18. The number of orders that have been received this year
are larger than ever before.
19. All of the sugar has been sold.
20. Three-fourths of the boys in our class intend to enter col-
lege.
Hi. A compound subject joined by and requires a
plural verb.
Mathematics and chemistry are my most difficult sub-
jects.
Television and radio have revolutionized social habits.
On the landing field stand a B-36 and a small helicopter
Note:
1. When the two subjects form a single thought, a sin
gular verb is used.
Bread and peanut butter is my favorite snack.
My comrade and friend was with me.
2. If two or more subjects are joined by and and preceded
by every, the verb is singular.
Every boy and girl in the auditorium applauds the piin-
cip?I when he appears on the stage.
n m. If two subjects are joined by or, either ... or,
neither . . . nor, the verb agrees with the subject
nearer it.
Neither the student president nor his friends want to see
Jack elected.
Either new athletic fields or a swimming pool is to be
provided in the spring.
Either they or I am at fault.
11n. If one subject is used affirmatively and the other
negatively, the verb agrees with the subject that is
used affirmatively.
He, not I, is responsible.
77
SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT
EXERCISE 3
Many of the sentences in the followmg exercise have in-
correct verb forms. Some of the sentences are correct. On
your paper, write the number of the sentence on which you
are working. Then write the subject of each incorrect verb
and the correct form of that verb. If the sentence is cor-
rect, write C after the number of the sentence. Read care-
fully. Some of the sentences may have two errors.
Example:
1. Careful workmanship combined , , i .
. , , , .^, , 1. workmanship
with the best materials make our ,
product the finest on the market.
1. Cooking, cleaning, and tending to the baby leaves my sister
little time for reading.
2. My cousin always said that my mother's hot rolls and choco-
late cake was the best food he had ever tasted.
3. Neither the Governor nor his press secretary were available
for comment.
4. An adolescent, as well as his parents, have ideas about
growing up.
5. Speeding, overcrowding, and reckless driving causes many
automobile accidents.
6. Nearly every great artist, musician, and writer has personal
idiosyncrasies.
7. My parents have ideas about the family car with which
neither my brother nor I agrees.
8. If neither the president's plan nor the negotiators' offers
are accepted, the government may have to take over the
plant.
9. Parents worry about early marriages because neither a boy
nor a girl are mature at eighteen.
10. Either nose drops or an inhaler helps to relieve a cold.
11. Homes in this neighborhood, including those just across the
i3rJig^i-§et, is assessed at fifteen thousand dollars.
tfe.t'Wlt is a national figure whose every word and action cany
weight.
13. The efficient manner in which you handle daily routine and
78
SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT * ■'^
the excellent showing that you made in the sales campaign
shows that you are capable.
14. The express company gave a receipt acknowledging that
the glider and its mattress was received in perfect condition.
15. Some people say that television appearances of election
personalities and the threat of communism has caused a
large turnout of voters.
16. At the time of your visit to our factory, the success of per-
formance tests and the durability of the product was pointed
out.
17. Love and comfort, as well as attention to special needs,
is important to old people.
18. Facts, not emotionalism, are needed to solve this case.
11o. A relative pronoun {who, which, that) may be
singular or plural depending upon the word to which
the pronoun refers.
The only way to tell whether a relative pronoun is singu-
lar or plural is to examine the part of the sentence that
precedes it and decide which word in the sentence the
pronoun refers to. This word is called the antecedent of
the pronoun. If the antecedent is singular, the pronoun will
be singular, and the verb that goes with it must be singular.
Our team is the only one of the bowling groups which
has kept rigidly to the schedule. (Which is the sub-
ject of the relative clause. It refers to one and is there-
fore singular. )
Monieka is one of the six mission stations that are sup-
ported by our church. (That is the subject of the
relative clause. It refers to stations and is plural.)
Jerry is the only one of the golfers who has maintained
a consistently good score. (Who refers to one.)
EXERCISE 4
In the following sentences you will find errors in verb
forms in both independent clauses and relative clauses. On
your paper, write the number of the sentence on which you
79
11
~ " SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT
are working. Then write the subject of each incorrect verb
and the corrected form of the verb.
Example: A number of the animals that is brought to Dickey-
ville by the circus is used in the parade through the
town.
1. that are — number are
1. The recent hurricane caused floods which has ruined our
stock.
2. Note these pieces, which we are certain represents the best
buy for the money.
3. Since publishing our catalogue, we have made two changes
in our circular saw which we think improves its perform-
ance.
4. The same dependable parts and reliable workmanship that
has made our product outstanding goes into our latest
model.
5. Jack is one of the few boys who have made both the team
and the honor roll.
6. As we read the papers, we cannot help thinking that the
number of problems which confronts us today is tremen-
dous.
7. If every one of us who are a citizen vote, we are sure to
have better government.
8. Recently one of the major-league teams which have been
with one city for a long time wished to make a change.
9. Two of our athletes who have been stars all season was
selected to be on the all-American team.
10. Henry is the only one of the committee members who have
proved really responsible.
EXERCISE 5
Write on your paper the number of each sentence. Be-
side it write the subject of each incorrect verb and the
correct form of that verb. Explain why you have made the
correction. If no correction is necessary in the sentence,
write C beside the sentence number.
SO
SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT
1. Helen and her sister comes to school late every day.
2. Near the parking lot was several large department stores.
3. There is two or three boys trying out for each position on
the team.
4. Recently there has been investigations of the injury caused
to the brain by boxing.
5. Everyone in my classes are subscribing to the school paper,
6. The changes in the design of the house was made at the
suggestion of the builder.
7. That don't make any difference.
8. Each of our toasters are carefully tested before being
shipped.
9. The interior of the early theaters were not very attractive.
10. The revenue that is collected at the games support the
teams.
11. Neither the professor nor his wife were at home.
12. The decision of the three officials were announced before
noon.
13. During the last few years there has been many arguments
over the place of sports in college life.
14. The cake's too sweet; it don't agree with me at all.
15. The brown puppy, as well as the black and the white ones,
were sold to some tourists yesterday.
16. Mary's keen interest in life and people makes her parties
a delightful experience.
17. Each of the class representatives have pledged support to
the student president.
18. Coleridge's ideas of how a perfect society should be man-
aged was very impractical.
19. Either Jane or I are going to suffer as a result of this.
20. The captain, together with aU the boys on the team, were
introduced from the platform.
21. Each ©f the amateur actors were beginning to feel stage
fright.
22. The development of children depend in large measure on
family training.
23. The mother, as well as the children, have been quarantined.
24. Neither the man nor his lawyers are ready to agree to that
proposal.
81
SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT
EXERCISE 6 -^
Follow the directions in Exercise 5.
1. The results obtained by our recent experiments with peni-
cillin has been very gratifying.
2. First the sisters of the bride appears; then follows her aunt
and uncle.
3. If one of these plans seem faulty, please discuss the issue
with me.
4. Either our representatives or one of the oflBcers of the com-
pany is going to Europe to settle the question.
5. Gulliver's Travels have been popular reading for many years.
6. The president of the company, in addition to several of the
officers, were present at the meeting.
7. In the office of the president was a large mahogany desk,
a swivel chair, and a few small straight chairs.
8. There's several questions that I want to ask you.
9. As the time of the celebrations approaches, each of the
natives prepares for the dance.
10. If there is any complaints about the merchandise, please
write us at once.
11. The letter, together with the advertising materials, was
forwarded to him yesterday.
12. Everyone in the school have an opportunity to make some
money on the side.
13. One of the men who has made great progress in the build-
ing of prefabricated houses is Foster Gunnison.
14. His development of porches, fireplaces, and garages provide
variation of the standard prefabricated house.
15. The public thought that Leeuwenhoek and other scientists
who believed his theory was crazy.
16. George must leave college for a while; his mother and father
needs him on the farm.
17. There was no running water and no sanitary arrangements
anywhere in the city,
18. Many people find that the comfort and security which comes
with owning a home makes the cost seem reasonable.
19. This country, together with Canada and some of the Latin-
82
StJBJECt AND VERfi ADREEISf Ei^ T-IUOI^OHI Cl^^PSIV
-mx FAmericah Gourit^f ies/J feav-fe f the 'MaterMi<*^^^
plete prosperity. .bsaq/ils asrl eibsy lo lad
20^ The structure of bur^pehtiGS -afid^of imrsfQlitic^VirssAUiods-
01 2Make any attempt ait! tariff reforib VerysdiffictfltJf.fe^soM
■ ?,-'_Bb ibW liviD
bsniBlaiijfn s'lr; zsoi'n^^^jLpjj^-f.:. ^j^'j^rji j^Ij lo lo-iinGa baSinlJ .91
.':■'. m.'= '' /ifJy-ioac sIgma b isbnij
ic,Ih3How the directions J9^S^gjpi§e} 5e g9bBffri9cfdm sdT .Vi
, _, „noi'ixnDqo isjup scb oi ahbc -jiid
fl. rCommon sense, as, well as economics: tell us r that wjiat ra.
country sells to other countries must be balanced by what
..it buys from abroad. - ; " . / , -. n, nr
(mn^.:\_-i_ . ;. ; :.,: , ^v' ^;jQ::;:;^rr _.ououbmu. Din^a axil .yi
2. pThe duties of the chief clerk includes a,uthonzatjbn of over-
r time, arrangements for pay, drafts, and handling the.^afer^,
3. The m-aferial, mounted on large panpTs, explains^ the prih"
ciples of advertising; it shows how good design, coloring,
and lettering attracts the customer.
4. We are. .peiise3!ldr"sray thM'aU thef 0ecdsslli^ efi[iiipment,
including clamps tdTpaQJ^Jtl^l^feyvjsjteT, has been shipped
to you.
8^- fi^fpiip^siiie]3ifpi!p#pg^byil®^lieFiw»*^siqvl^ ^«(fil
the stories. «fS@f1®q fefi^ ^i^dffiyfi ,l©br8©g
Q. In Fielding's work we often find little humorous touches
8"'-9lat show the '^ubtlfet^i^f Ms thinkin^/rov/ gnijiiv/ luO
fe In the laboratory, the te'chnioian is able to perform various^
" /tests which, when combined with the proper clinical ex+3
bn£ainination, results in arquick and aecufa^teidriagr^osjss ed Ion
^[fXhe language, the aJ)proach, and the form of the salps-x|^fgf|
is different for the yajious^ types, of sales expected. ..^^j.^^^ q^I
9. Mrs. Hammond sent word that she, together with her chil-
oj fdren, :were istaying atVjtJie lake: for another ;w«ekol;0
lQ©A;ipainting ofothe artist, 'as wel/asoone of jBorda and his
-fnrjpriestrbrbihef,xhangsjjon'th«^ waHra^ church.
11. So far as finding the people who had been lost inJ the land-
slides were concerned, we had given up hope.
f2«qfe339i©t= there Was bahstMclid^
a dam and a hydroelectric plant. .aaco ai
13. From the bottom of the Susquehanna River come deposits
•X«*«l»f*1|fe^<J®mi^s."lf«yAfKi-ac»^^K^3©9 ibiQw ©HT ed£f
ni bns ^lolugrjis btq xbodon bno ^^^odyisv^ <iX^*i4
^8
12a-b
PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT
14. The full effect of the program will not be seen until a num-
ber of years has elapsed.
15. We live in one of those three-story houses that fronts on
Moreland Drive and dates back almost a hundred years to
Civil War days.
16. Unified conti'ol of the three armed services are maintained
under a single Secretary of Defense.
17. The rubber blades of the fan not only act as a safety factor
but adds to the quiet operation.
18. Mr. Eckels was one of the many people who was approached
on the idea of buying a prefabricated house.
19. The rapid production methods and the mass construction
used in building the prefabricated house keeps the price low.
20. Of all the women present, Mrs. Rutherford is the one who
have done the best work.
12. PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT
AGREEMENT
12a. A pronoun should agree with its antecedent in
gender, number, and person.
Our writing would be very dull if we repeated nouns
again and again. Consequently, we use a pronoun instead
of repeating the noun. But the meaning of the pronoun will
not be clear unless it has the same gender, number, and
person as the noun for which it stands. This noun is called
the antecedent. (See Sections 1 and 2.)
Orion is an important synthetic material. It is said to
be better than nylon. {It refers to orlon, the anteced-
ent. Both orlon and it are neuter gender, singular num-
ber, third person. )
Pronouns do not necessarily agree with their antecedents
in case.
12b. The words each, either, neither, somebody, arty-
body, everybody, and nobody are singular, and in
84
PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT 12kC"*CI
formal English a pronoun referring to any one of these
words should be singular ihe, his, him, she, her, it).
In colloquial English the rule stated above has been re-
laxed somewhat. People who wish their language to sound
informal and casual sometimes use their to refer to every-
body; but this form should not appear in formal writing.
Colloquial: Everybody took their heavy coat to camp.
Formal: Everybody took his heavy coat to camp.
Colloquial: Each of the boxers was accompanied by their man-
ager.
Formal: Each of the boxers was accompanied by his man-
ager.
12c. A collective noun used as an antecedent takes a
singular pronoun if the group is thought of as a unit
and a plural pronoun if it is thought of in terms of its
individual members.
The audience was generous with its applause.
The audience shiEted restlessly in their seats.
Note: Once you decide whether a collective noun is to be
singular or plural, stick to your decision. If you use it as
the subject with a singular verb, make sure that all pro-
nouns referring to it are singular; and if you use it with
a plural verb, make sure that all pronouns are plural.
Wrong: The family was discussing their diflBculties.
Right: The family was discussing its difficulties.
Right: The family were discussing their difficulties.
12d. A noun or an indefinite pronoun used as an
antecedent takes a pronoun in the third person.
All nouns and indefinite pronouns are in the third person
except when they are used in direct address or in apposi-
tion with a pronoun of the first or second person. Aside
from these two uses, all nouns and indefinite pronouns
require a third-person pronoun. A phrase such as of us,
&5
12C^^^lB PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT
of ijou coming between the pronoun and its antecedent
does not affect the person of the pronoun. ^
Wrong: If a man wants to achieve success, you must work for it.
Right: If a man wants to achieve success, he must work for it.
Wrong: Neither of you has finished your lunch.
Right: Neither of you has finished his lunch.
12e. When the antecedent is a singular noun of com<
mon gender, the masculine pronoun should be used
unless it is clear that the noun refers to a girl or a
>voman.
Right: Each member of the dramatic club indicated his choice
of a play for the annual production.
Right: Each member of the girls' glee club was asked to name
her favorite Christmas carol.
12f. A pronoun agrees with the nearer of two ante-
cedents joined by or or nor.
He loves everything or everybody who is connected with
his work.
In this cool room, neither the gardenia nor the roses will
lose their freshness.
12g. Who refers to persons, which refers to things, and
tfiat refers to persons or things.
The man who told me the story is your doctor.
The book which you lent me contains some very exciting
stories.
The woman flier that took her plane on a round-the-world
trip has been awarded a medal.
12h. What should not be used to refer to an expressed
antecedent.
Wrong: The book what you sent me as a graduation present
arrived yesterday.
Right: The book that you sent me arrived yesterday.
Right: I heard what you said.
86
PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT
EXERCISE 8
Most of the sentences in the following exercise contain
pronouns which do not agree with their antecedents. Write
on your paper the number of each sentence. Then write the
correct form of any pronoun that is wrong or colloquial.
In some instances a verb will also need to be changed.
Beside the correct form of the pronoun ( and verb, if neces-
sary), in parentheses, write the antecedent of the pronoun
you have corrected. If a sentence is correct, write C beside
the sentence number.
1. Every student must be in their place at 8:45.
2. Has everyone passed in their paper?
3. The human mind has not caught up with the speed of their
own inventions.
4. Everybody who goes to our camp will enjoy their summer
vacation.
5. We offer a money-back guarantee to each of our customers
when he buys this new paint.
6. Everyone in our family has their own household chores.
7. A business executive gets better work from their employees
if they use a little kindness.
8. If next year's senior class has their way, the ruling will be
changed.
9. There are many kinds of people who make pleasant guests.
10. When a company changes their system abruptly, they may
cease to make money.
11. The football team has won every game they've played this
year.
12. Can any state be really independent? The answer is they
can't.
13. Each of us in the nurses' home had our personal problems.
14. If a boy is trusted and allowed to stay out late, you have
a sense of responsibility.
15. The theater in Shakespeare's day was not so elaborate as
they are today.
16. A student understands the national government better if
they have a chance to participate in student government.
87
PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT
17. When a girl is interviewed for a job, you should wear neat
clothes and avoid gaudy jewelry.
18. A person should consider carefully the background of every
speaker they hear.
19. The diesel engine weighs much more than the gasoline
engine, and therefore they are not used in automobiles.
20. The pohce department gives their support to driver edu-
cation in the schools.
21. A person gets bored watching some television programs be-
cause you can tell just what will happen next.
22. Not one of my neighbors has made any improvements in
their home.
23. An impudent boy sometimes sets an example for their
younger brothers and sisters, and they want to imitate him.
24. When I have absolutely no time, every mother in the
neighborhood asks me to baby-sit for them.
25. In our two-party political system, each party has their own
platform on which their candidates run.
EXERCISE 9
Follow the directions in Exercise 8.
1. The car leaving the school grounds had boxes of books piled
so high in the back that it blocked the back window.
2. During the next year each of us will meet situations that
will subject us to unfamiliar pressures.
3. In the early days, people thought that man had no business
to poke their noses into scientific aflFairs.
4. If singers can find appealing words and dramatize their
songs, he will be successful even if he is unknown.
5. There were many boys besides me, and everyone was try-
ing to get settled in their barracks.
6. The girls received as favors small keys of silver with the
emblem of the club engraved on it.
7. By voting for the man of your choice, the average Ameri-
can has a good chance to improve his government.
8. The company voted to pay a bonus of one hundred dollars
to every employee, regardless of their salary.
88
PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT
9. If a person works all the time and never plays, by the time
they are in the prime of life they are good for nothing.
10. The great ocean waves rolled on, continually washing the
sand with its salty spray.
11. Sometimes he turns on the porch light or the hall light and
forgets to turn them ofiF.
12. Any student who is interested should sign this sheet and
indicate beside their name what courses they wish to take.
13. In addition to qualifications for the job, one must also con-
sider conditions under which you are willing to work.
14. To continue education under the scholarship plan, one must
have made satisfactory grades in all his courses.
15. Bacon introduced a new scientific approach to learning
which would help everyone if they used it.
16. Many songs that were popular in Grandpa's day have fas-
cinating rhythms that make it still appealing today.
17. Although I think that parties and dances are all right to a
certain extent, I believe it is harmful when it is carried to
excess.
18. When a person rides through our state, particularly in the
industrial section, you see mostly ugly factory towns.
19. Anyone, no matter where they live, what school they go
to, or what their religion may be, is welcome at the recrea-
tion center.
20. A ntmiber of producers will piously pass resolutions pro-
claiming their interest in free enterprise and then work hard
to keep high tariff protection for its own product.
EXERCISE 10
The follov^^ing sentences contain errors in subject and
verb agreement and pronoun and antecedent agreement.
Write on your paper the number of each sentence. Then
write the necessary corrections of verbs and pronouns. Write
also an explanation of why you have made the changes. If
no correction is necessary, write C beside the sentence
number.
1. Have either of the boys finished their homework?
S9
PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT
2. Each of the pohtical machines are trying to put into office
their chosen candidates.
3. Each of the boys have aheady done what they were told to
do.
4. When a child returns to school, one of the things in which
he is interested at once is the sports.
5. Only one who has slept on such a bed know how hard they
are.
6. Have either of you written your minutes?
7. Everyone is enthusiastic over the coming election and are
working to promote their candidate.
8. The attendance and spirit at the games was never so great
as it is now.
9. As time went on, every village and city was obliged to
surrender some of its privileges to the state.
10. Every one of the students are required to pay their dues
before May 1,
11. All members of the drama club are urged to attend the
meeting; and anyone else interested in taking part in the
play are invited to leave their name with the secretary.
12. After their appointment each of the men are given a course
in business writing.
13. The maker of the prefabricated house says that the appear-
ance of the houses don't matter so long as they sell.
14. If any one of the employees is late, he must report at once
to the supervisor.
15. Each of us, at one time or another, have expressed ourselves
on the subject.
16. Only after the improvement association got their members
to protest were they able to block the new zoning law.
17. Neither trouble nor expense were spared in giving each
of the boys the education they wanted.
18. Not only has the value of real estate gone up, but the cost
of labor and materials have risen tremendously.
19. Each teacher will report factors which in their opinion in-
terferes with successful work in the classroom.
20. Studies of the problem seems to show that women who have
had some work experience before marriage makes better
wives because she knows the value of money.
90
REFERENCE OF PRONOUNS I^SCl^C
13. REFERENCE OF PRONOUNS
13a. The antecedent to which a pronoun refers should
be made clear.
Sometimes the thought of a sentence is clear to the writer
because he has the antecedent of his pronoun in his mind.
The reader, however, cannot be expected to be a mind
reader. He must be able to put his finger on the word to
which the pronoun is meant to refer. Otherwise, he may
misunderstand what he has read. Writing which is not per-
fectly clear to the reader is of little value. (See Sections
2 and 12. )
13b. The antecedent of a pronoun should be expressed,
not merely implied.
Mrs. Seton told me the other day that she has taken a
cottage at the seashore. He doesn't want to go, but she
thinks the salt aii* will do him good.
Who is this he? No man has been mentioned. The an-
tecedent is in the mind of the speaker. Changing he to her
husband clears up the difficulty.
Vague: I intend to be a lawyer because it is interesting work.
(There is no antecedent for it.)
Improved: Because law is interesting work, I intend to be a
lawyer.
Vague: I like to travel in Switzerland. They are always pleas-
ant to visitors.
Improved: I like to travel in Switzerland. The Swiss are always
pleasant to visitors.
13c. Avoid the indefinite use of it and they.
Indefinite: In this magazine article, it shows that war is hor-
rible.
Better: This article shows that war is horrible.
Indefinite: They have good roads in Delaware.
Better: Delaware has good roads.
91
13cl-ff
REFERENCE OF PRONOUNS
Vague: They say that Argentina is a wealthy nation.
Better: It is said that Argentina is a wealthy nation.
Note: It is sometimes used impersonally to introduce an
idea. In these cases no antecedent is necessary.
It will be clear tomorrow.
It was Lincoln who made the "House Divided" speech.
It is necessary, it is true, it is certain, it is likely, it is
imperative are correct.
13ci. Do not use impersonal if and the pronoun If in
the same sentence.
Vague: We can send the refrigerator today, or we can keep it
in the factory for a few days if it is necessary.
Better: We can send the refrigerator today, or we can keep it
for a few days.
Note: In informal English, it sometimes refers to an idea
instead of a single antecedent.
Informal: The boys were nervous, but they tried not to show it.
Formal: The boys were nervous, but they tried not to show
their uneasiness.
13e. In formal writing avoid the use of you to mean
people in general.
In colloquial or informal speech, expressions such as "You
can see how important money is" or "Dancing makes you
graceful" are permissible. Formal English requires the use
of one or anyone in these statements.
Anyone can see how important money is.
Dancing makes one graceful.
13f. In formal v\^riting avoid the use of which, this,
that to refer to a whole clause.
Informal: The company has had our entire building air-condi-
tioned, which makes working in hot weather very
comfortable.
92
REFERENCE OF PRONOUNS
Informal: We have rearranged the entiie file, which will make
it easier to find things quickly.
In these sentences a whole statement is the antecedent
of which. Such sentences can be improved in three ways.
1. Ahead of the word which, use an act, a fact, a situa-
tion, a habit, or a procedure. The noun preceding which
will be its antecedent.
Formal: The company has had our entire building air-condi-
tioned, a fact which makes working in hot weather
comfortable.
Formal: We have rearranged the entire file, a procedure which
will make it easier to find things quickly.
2. Recast the sentence, omitting the word which.
Improved: Because our building has been aii-conditioned, we
can work in comfort during hot weather.
Improved: Our new arrangement of the material in the file
makes it possible for us to find things quickly.
3. Recast the sentence to provide an antecedent for the
pronoun.
Improved: The company has installed air-conditioning, which
makes working in hot weather very comfortable.
Improved: We have rearranged the entire file according to a
new system which will make it easier to find things
quickly.
Note: If the meaning is clear and the sentence would be-
come awkward or stilted if it were corrected, the informal
construction may be used.
13g. Avoid ambiguous reference to either of two
nouns of the same gender.
Vague: Howard told Arthur that he had been elected. (Be-
cause he could mean either Howard or Arthur, the
sentence is not clear. It could be improved by using
latter or former, or by giving the exact words which
Arthur said.)
93
f ^^1^ EEFERENCE OF PRONOUNS
Improved: Howard told Arthur that the latter had been elected.
Improved: Howard said to Arthur, "You have been elected."
Ambiguous reference can also be corrected by using a
synonym for the antecedent or by changing the construc-
tion of the sentence.
Vague: He took the books from the boxes and placed them
on the floor. (The books or the boxes?)
Improved: He took the books from the boxes and placed the
volumes on the floor. {Volumes used as synonym
for books.)
Improved: He removed the books and placed the boxes on the
floor. (Construction changed.)
13h. Avoid the use of same in place of a personal
pronoun.
Wrong: Please fill out the blank and return same to us.
Right: Please fill out the blank and return it to us.
EXERCISE 11
The following sentences contain pronouns which do not
refer clearly to a stated antecedent. Write on your paper
the number of each sentence. Beside each number write
the pronoun which has no clear antecedent. Then write
your correction. If no correction is necessary, write C be-
side the sentence number.
1. In our new public museum they plan to feature modern art.
2. When George met Frank, he was going to the football game.
3. Mark has been unable to do his homework. May he have
the weekend to complete same?
4. If the students were given control of the study hall, it would
give the teachers more time.
5. The teacher in charge of the corrective gymnasium work
tries to correct your posture.
6. Our organization was established to help people when they
most need it.
94
REFERENCE OF PRONOUNS
7. I think that when an agitator is arrested, it makes him look
hke a martyr.
8. Edith told Sarah that she was sure to be elected president
of the class.
9. When I visited Denver, I saw they have the kind of climate
I like.
10. The old stable was torn down and a new theater built in
its place, which improved the appearance of the neighbor-
hood tremendously.
11. The colonel is famous for telling humorous stories, and he
gets it by remembering everything he reads.
12. Sam's father was a bookseller, and he read many books in
his shop.
13. My uncle Charles sent us some books which we enjoyed very
much.
14. If the toaster won't work, we can't have it for lunch.
15. The lamp is very durable, which accounts for the slight loss
in breakage.
16. The building is poorly designed, which causes space to be
wasted.
17. In this book it says that Jackson was a great general who
never made a tactical mistake.
18. We had hot baths at the hotel, which for me was enough
to make Dijon a landmark.
19. It has not been twenty years since the first house was built
in this town, and it now contains more than 10,000 inhabit-
ants.
20. The little girl asked her mother how old she was.
21. When the immigrants arrived, the ground in the West was
not broken, and they could not do it with the few tools
available.
22. Please fill in the blanks on the enclosed form and return it
to us so that we can begin serving you without delay.
23. When Jack asked Mr. Henderson for a job, he didn't know
what to say.
24. We are trying to rid the city's streets of rubbish in order
to make it more attractive.
25. Unless payment is made in ten days' time, we must turn
it over to our attorneys.
95
REFERENCE OF PRONOUNS
EXERCISE 12 ^
Follow the directions in Exercise 11.
1. He was a businessman, and all his life he tried to make his
son like it too.
2. Sign the card and return same to us at once.
3. My work in the senior year is very hard, but it is worth
it to know that in June I shall graduate.
4. The poet Markham must have believed strongly in God be-
cause in his poems it mentions God frequently.
5. Our policy is to give service to members first, but to give
it also to nonmembers when it is possible.
6. Have your eyes examined; if you don't need them, the
oculist will tell you.
7. When Mrs. Ennis told the story to my mother, she was not
sure of what had happened.
8. Richard's uncle has lived many years in Tahiti, has learned
to speak the language, and likes them because they are so
colorful.
9. Sandy examined her notebook with bitterness, took out her
paper, and tore it to pieces.
10. When you walk through the halls, you can choose the per-
son with whom you want to talk, which was not possible
in our old school.
11. In some mystery stories on television, criminals seem to be
encouraged to continue their crimes, which is another rea-
son why these programs should not be presented.
12. The grounds around the stadium are very small, and they
have to walk miles from where they park.
13. We are conducting a traffic safety campaign to make it safe
for school children.
14. Diggs and Haworth want the goods shipped by June 10,
but we cannot do it.
15. If you are dissatisfied with the merchandise, return same
at once.
16. We bought a new house, which was something we had
planned to do for years.
17. Ed comes so early every morning that it makes the other
employees seem lazy when they arrive at nine o'clock.
96
CASE OF PRONOUNS
14a-c
18. The staflF oflBcer's associates are supposed to be well edu-
cated, honest, and industrious, but it does not always work
out that way.
19. Competing gas companies are selling a large volume of
gasoline, which indicates a large potential volume of sales
for our service station if we build in this section.
20. In some suburbs, civic consciousness has always been high,
and the sections show it.
14. CASE OF PRONOUNS
There are three cases for nouns and pronouns: nomina-
tive, possessive, and objective. Because nouns do not change
their form to show the nominative or objective case, the
rules given here are important chiefly for pronouns. (Re-
view Sections 1 and 2.)
14a. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case.
The nominative forms are /, you, he, she, it, we, you,
they.
Sarah and I have joined a club at school.
When Ned comes, he and I are going to build a boat.
We boys can do a better job without the girls.
14b. The pronoun following any part of the verb be
{am, is, are, was, were, been, be) and referring to the
subject is in the nominative case, it is called a predi-
cate nominative. (See Section If.)
The officers of the class are Carol, Alfred, and I.
It was he.
Do you think it could have been she who sang on the
radio last night?
Note: Colloquial English permits "It's me" or "It was us,"
but these forms should not appear in formal writing.
14c. The object of a verb or a preposition is in the
objective case: me, you, him, her, it, us, them. (See
Section 1g.)
97
14cl-e
CASE OF PRONOUNS
Watch particularly the second member of a compound
object. Both members must be in the same case.
Mother met Hilda and me at the station. (Hilda and me
are objects of the verb met.)
Mrs. Fulton had invited her and me to a party. (Her
and me are objects of the verb invited.)
Between Jack and him there has always been a real
friendship. (Jack and him are objects of the preposi-
tion between.)
AU the plans for the senior dance were made by Fred
and her. (Fred and her are objects of the preposition
by.)
Note: Common prepositions are to, for, from, with, by,
between, near, beside, like, and but w^hen it means except.
( See Section 5a-b. )
Everybody came to the party but him. (Except him)
14d. The indirect object is m the objective case.
The indirect object is the object of to or for understood.
Uncle Fred sent me a bracelet from India. (Bracelet is
the direct object; me is the object of to understood.)
Save me a piece of that cake. (Me is the object of for
understood; piece is the direct object.)
14e. The compound pronouns myself, herself, himself,
itself, themselves, yourself, yourselves, ourselves are
used as intensive or reflexive pronouns.
Colloquial: Dave, Marian, and myself went on a picnic.
Formal: Dave, Marian, and I went on a picnic.
Colloquial: The party was for Dave, Marian, and myself.
Formal: The party was for Dave, Marian, and me.
Right: I'll make the sandwiches myself. (Intensive, for
emphasis )
Right: The cat washed herself. (Reflexive. Herself refers
to cat.)
98
CASE OF PRONOUNS l^ft ■
Note: There are no words hisself or their selves. The words
to be used are himself and themselves.
14f. In an elliptical clause introduced by ffian or as,
the pronoun will be nominative or objective according
to the structure of the complete clause. An elliptical
clause is one with a word or more missing; the omitted
word or words are understood from other parts of the
sentence. Supplying the missing part will help you to
decide the case of the pronoun that will be used in
the clause.
My brother is taller than 7. {Than introduces the ellipti-
cal clause / am. I is therefore the subject of the verb
am understood.)
Dick is just as good an actor as she. {She is subject
of is understood.)
Nobody cares more about your success than he. {He is
subject of does understood.)
I shall send him rather than her. {Her is object of send
understood. )
This television program amused you much more than
me. {Me is object of amused understood.)
Caution: Them is a pronoun and must not be used as an
adjective.
Wrong: Them prizefighters put on a good show last night.
Right: Those prizefighters put on a good show last night.
Right: I enjoyed the good show put on by them last night.
EXERCISE 13
This exercise contains errors in the use of personal pro-
nouns as subjects, predicate nominatives, and objects of
verbs or prepositions. Write on yom- paper the number of
each sentence and beside it write the necessary corrections.
Write also an explanation of why you have made each
correction. If no correction is necessary in a sentence, write
C beside the sentence number.
99
1I4f case of pronouns
1. Eileen and her are both class oflRcers.
2. Why did you run when the principal called Frank and I?
3. Her and her husband were prisoners in China during the
war.
4. I saw she and her mother in New York last week.
5. On October 30, a couple of girls and myself are going to
give a Halloween party.
6. My father used to send groceries from his store to she and
her sister.
7. Maud married a man who was as poor as her.
8. I think you will enjoy the book as much as me.
9. Ten football players, including Dave and I, will do a mock
ballet at the pep assembly.
10. Dickens wrote for social reforms because when he was a
boy, his entire family except he was put in a debtors' prison.
11. It was him who rang the bell.
12. Did your class have the same test as us?
13. The guide who was employed by my brother and I did an
excellent job of showing us the city.
14. Everybody but Ted and I had left the locker room when
the coach and him arrived.
15. Whenever something goes wrong in our house, it's me who
get the blame.
16. Although my brother is much more careless than me, my
parents seldom punish either he or my sister.
17. Ben, Howard, and me are planning a trip to the Grand
Canyon this summer.
18. Fred's parents have promised to give he and his brother
the trip for a graduation present.
19. Although I study more than them, I never seem to get the
marks that him and Nick get.
20. What are you going to give Sally and her for Christmas?
21. It must have been him who told you that Mark and me
were at the dance.
22. If I were her, I should not invite Jack and he to the party
after the way they treated we girls last week.
23. Give Harold and I an opportunity to explain what hap-
pened, and I am sure that you will excuse we boys for
being late.
100
CASE OF PRONOUNS 1^|>
24. I can't explain just what the trouble was because I was
not with Judith and she when the accident occurred.
25. There has never been any competition between you and I
because you are clearly a better student than me.
EXERCISE 14
Follow the directions in Exercise 13.
1. One evening when Rosalie and me were home alone, we
heard a strange noise.
2. We trembled for several minutes, but finally it was me who
had the courage to investigate.
3. Sue, Phyllis, and myself were waiting for Zelda to come.
4. If anybody is late, it's always her.
5. Do not forget that the other side wants to win as much
as us.
6. Last year Dad and me went to Florida for a month, and a
friend of his invited he and I for a trip to the Everglades.
7. You cannot imagine what fun him and I had on that trip.
8. We have great admiration for she and her mother.
9. Our singing often brought my brother and I before the
student assembly.
10. The striking similarity between my new roommate and me
ensures our getting along well.
11. Thank you for the marvelous time you gave Jim and I last
weekend.
12. Larry and her were going to get married in June, but they
decided to wait until Ted and me could plan a double
wedding.
13. Two girls and another boy and me plan to go to the fresh-
man dance.
14. Since my father has always traveled a great deal, my mother
had the responsibility of bringing up my brother and I.
15. The glee club is the main interest of my roommate and
I, but my brother won't join we boys in singing.
16. I think it was he who planned the reorganization of the
business.
17. On Sunday my parents came to camp and took Allen and
I for a country picnic.
101
f ^^^a^g CASE OF PRONOUNS
18. There was no mail for Pete and I because we had failed
to write to Susan.
19. My little brother always wants to go fishing with Dad and
I, but we give he and Jerry a quarter and send them for
ice cream.
20. If I were him, I'd appoint a new representative to meet
customers like them.
14g. The subject of an infinitive is in the obiective case.
The infinitive is the form of the verb that usually has to
in front of it — to study, to write, to sing. (See Section 3g.)
I wanted him to run for class president. (The whole
group of words is the object of wanted; him is the
subject of to run.)
Doris expected me to wait for her.
Jack asked me to go to the dance.
The music teacher let Gordon and me sing a duet. (A
verb used after let is an infinitive although it is used
without to. Gordon and me are subjects of the in-
finitive to sing.)
My father let Jimmy and him wash our car.
14h. The object of an infinitive or of any other verbal
is in the objective case.
The librarian wants to see us. (Us is the object of the
infinitive to see.)
Finding you here is a surprise. (You is the object of the
gerund finding. )
Having recognized him instantly, I hurried across the
street. (Him is the object of the participle liaving
recognized. )
14i. The complement of the infinitive fo be is in the
objective case when the subject of the infinitive is ex-
pressed.
This construction may cause some trouble because it
requires an objective case after a linking verb. It may help
102
CASE OF PRONOUNS 1^»|^|C
to remember that the objective case will occur after to be
only when two conditions prevail: (1) The sentence must
use the infinitive form of the verb to be; (2) the subject of
that infinitive must be expressed. Notice the difference in
these examples:
I should like to be he. (Here, to he is the infinitive, but
it has no subject. As a result, the pronoun is in the
nominative case.)
I thought you were he. (Here, the form were is not an
infinitive. )
I took you to be him. ( In this sentence, you is the subject
of the infinitive to be. The subject of an infinitive is
in the objective case. Then the objective case must
follow. )
Aunt Jane took Lucy to be me.
The construction is an awkward one and can be avoided.
14j. An appositive must be in the same case as the
word with which it is in apposition. (See Appositive in
Glossary of Grammatical Terms.)
The principal wants us all — Albert, Roland, and me — to
run for the ofiice. (Albert, Roland, me, are in ap-
position with us and must be in the same case.)
14k. The possessive case of a noun or pronoun should
be used before a gerund. (See Section 3g.)
I do not approve of his playing football. (Playing is the
■ gerund. It is the object of the preposition of.)
My teachers were not sure of my winning the prize.
(Winning is the gerund.)
His singing could be improved. (Singing is the gerund.)
Note: Be sure to distinguish between gerund and participle.
The latter is used as an adjective and does not have a
possessive case preceding it.
We saw him standing on the corner. (Standing is a
participle modifying him.)
103
14p case of pronouns
EXERCISE 15
This exercise contains errors in the use of the three cases
of personal pronouns. Write on your paper the number of
each sentence and beside it write the necessary corrections.
Also write an explanation of why you have made each
correction. If no correction is necessary in a sentence, write
C beside the sentence number.
1. Yesterday my sister took pictures of my family and myself.
2. The guard would not permit Alfred and he to enter the
building.
3. The Sherwoods want Judy and I to go with them to Atlantic
City.
4. The manager gave Miss Short and I complete directions
for the job.
5. Nancy and me want to thank you for a wonderful weekend
at the shore.
6. I asked Dad to let Joseph and I go to Salt Lake City for a
visit.
7. Yesterday Mrs. Howard invited Sue and I to come to a
party.
8. I am not sure of him going to college.
9. What is the use of me studying Latin?
10. Because they had not completed their work, Mr. Harris
would not permit Allen and he to leave for the game.
11. Do you remember me telling you about our new house?
12. If I were sure of him finding a job in Detroit, I'd sell the
house now, when I have a good offer.
13. Our drama coach wants Hazel and I to be in the Christmas
assembly.
14. For some reason I took Stuart to be him.
15. At Christmas time the company gave Ed and she a bonus.
16. It was hard for Beatrice and me to believe Dick's story.
17. Let Irving and I work on the experiment because him and
myself have done some similar experiments in our laboratory.
18. Arrangements had been made for Mr. Green and I to attend
the conference, but a special order prevented me going.
19. We all expected the election returns to show the winner to
be he.
104
CASE OF PRONOUNS
141
20. I hope the winner will be he.
21. The Starr, Davidson Company wishes the manager and I
to take a course in business letter writing.
22. Please reserve for Mr. Carson and I a room on the seventh
floor.
23. The firm is going to send Roger and I to the plant in
Pittsburgh, but there is no indication of us being transferred
permanendy.
24. Although we had worked hard for a year, our employer did
not wish to give Steve and I an increase in salary.
25. How did the court prove it to be he that had helped the
enemy?
141. Who is in the nominative case and is used as the
subject of a verb or as predicate nominative. (See Sec-
tion 14b.)
Who and whom are used as relative pronouns that in-
troduce relative clauses and as interrogative pronouns. They
follow exactly the same rules as personal pronouns.
The sportsmen who sailed the boat over the rapids were
Calif ornians. (Who is the subject of the verb sailed.)
Our neighbor, who has just built a ranch-type house,
spent years in planning the structure. {Who is the
subject of the verb has built.)
The next two sentences illustrate a problem that often
arises with the choice of who or whom. The words in the
subordinate clause are not in natural order — that is, subject
first and verb next. Arranging the clause in natural order
will helpi you to see the relationship of the relative pronoun
to the clause.
It is difiBcult to see from here who the people are.
(Relative clause in natural order reads: the people are
who. Then it is clear that who is a predicate nomina-
tive.)
We are not sure who the next president will be. (Natural
order: the next president will be who. Who is the
predicate nominative.)
105
"^■■■" CASE OF PRONOUNS
Interrogative sentences will be clearer if they are arranged
in natural order.
Question: Who shall I say called?
Natural order: I shall say who called. {Who is subject
of called.)
14m. Whom is in the objective case and is used as
the object of a verb or a preposition and as an indi-
rect object.
Current usage studies indicate that the distinction be-
tween who and whom is breaking down. In formal English
and in cases where a preposition or verb immediately
precedes the pronoun, the objective case (whom) is re-
tained. In informal conversational English, when the pro-
noun precedes the verb or preposition of which it is the
object, who is accepted; but in writing anything but the
most informal, chatty paper, one should observe the rule
for the objective case.
Right: Every person with whom Mr. Sanford
works considers him a very conscientious
person. {Whom is the object of the prep-
osition with immediately preceding it.)
Informal conversation: My mother always wants to know where
I am going and who I'm going with.
{Who is really the object of the preposi-
tion with, but informal English accepts
who in this case. Notice that who pre-
cedes the preposition of which it is the
object. )
Informal conversation: Who do you wish to speak to? {Who is
the object of the preposition to, but in-
formal English accepts who in this case.
Notice that who precedes the preposi-
tion of which it is the object.
Formal: The bank handles every overdrawn ac-
count in the same manner, no matter
106
CASE OF PRONOUNS
14n
whom it concerns. (Whom is object of
concerns. )
Formal: Clerks are instructed to handle courte-
ously all requests for information, regard-
less of whom they are from. (The whole
relative clause is the object of the prepo-
sition of. Whom is the object of from.)
14n. Whom is used as the subject or object of an in-
finitive and as a complement of the infinitive to be
when its subject is expressed. (See Section 14i.)
Whom are you going to send as a delegate to the conven-
tion? (Natural order: You are going to send whom;
whom is the object of the infinitive to send.)
Some people whom the world considers to be good
thinkers are really appealing to emotion, not logic.
(Natural order: The world considers whom to be good
thinkers; whom is the subject of the infinitive to he.)
Whom did you think him to be? (Natural order: You
did think him to be whom? Whom is the complement. )
Note: In sentences containing relative pronouns, follow
these directions if you have trouble:
1. Be sure to work only with the subordinate clause.
2. Omit semiparenthetical expressions such as I think, do you
consider, we regard, you know if the thought of the clause
remains complete without them.
3. Arrange the subordinate clause with subject first and then
verb.
4. If you are still in doubt, substitute he or him for the relative
pronoun. In general, where he makes sense, who can be
used. If him seems correct, use the relative pronoun whom.
Example: He is a man-< , >1 am sure everybody admires.
1. The subordinate clause is: <^ , I 7 am sure evervhodu
J . 1 whom ( 3 y
admires. ^ ■>
107
■I^fC^ case of pronouns
2. Omit the parenthetical expression I am sure. We have re-
maining: -l 1 > everybody admires.
3. In natural order the clause reads: everybody admires
Twho ^
(^ whom j
4. Everybody admires him.
Everybody admires whom.
5. Conclusion: He is a man whom I am sure everybody admires.
(Whom is the object of admires.)
l4o. Whoever and whomever follow the same rules
as who and whom.
The medal will be given to whoever has the highest grade
in English. (The object of to is the whole clause who-
ever has the highest grade. Whoever is the subject of
has.)
Send to the main office whomever you employ this
morning. (Whomever is the object of employ.)
He tells the same old story to whomever he meets.
(Whomever is the object of meets.)
EXERCISE 16
On your paper, write the number of each sentence. Beside
it, write the correct form of the relative pronoun as it should
appear in formal English. Explain why you have selected
this form. If any sentence would be acceptable as informal
English, write X beside your correction.
1. Please send us the names of three firms who you have ac-
counts with.
2. This is the boy who we met at the game.
3. I have not yet decided who I shall vote for.
4. Of all the charactei-s in Dickens, who do you like best?
5. When I reached the office, I forgot who I had been told to
ask for.
108
CASE OF PRONOUNS
14
6. Who do you think we took on our camping trip?
7. The guide who we hired in Washington showed us the
Lincoln Memorial.
8. We could not decide who had made the best play.
9. I tried to get in touch with the carpenter who you recom-
mended.
10. Has William told you who the class elected as president?
11. Whom could it have been?
12. Please let me know whom should be notified in case of
accident.
13. The woman has a child who she has not seen for five years.
14. Who did you apply to?
15. Do you know who the two women quarreled over?
16. Your organization will be responsible for all students, no
matter who they are housed by.
17. Because the border was being changed constantly, the
people did not know who the land belonged to.
18. The speaker at the conference was a historian who our com-
mittee has always disagreed with.
19. Who the committee selects as speaker is a matter of com-
plete indifference to me.
20. Who did you sav it was?
21. Who do we play next week?
22. I am sure that I can get along with whoever you put in
charge.
23. If the card was unsigned, how could you tell who it was
from?
24. Of all the people in history, whom would you prefer to be?
25. Mr. Henderson has never mentioned who he works for.
EXERCISE 17
Follow directions in Exercise 16.
1. Today people often know who the winning candidate is
before they go to bed on election night.
2. Before the invention of the telegraph, the voters didn't find
out who they had elected until days or even weeks later.
3. Please make a list of all those whom you think will con-
tribute.
109
14
CASE OF PRONOUNS
4. This is the man whom I believe has promised to speak at our
assembly.
5. Our son wants to marry a girl who we think is not worthy
of him.
6. We shall sell our antiques to whomever will pay the highest
price.
7. The Gorgon turned to stone whoever she looked at.
8. I will call this problem to the attention of our Senator, whom
I know well.
9. Mrs. Corcoran is a very capable woman, whom we think is
doing a good job.
10. We had a long argument over who we would ask to the
party.
11. I can't imagine who you think will be willing to help you
do such a thing.
12. Who did you say this package was for?
13. The notice was sent to all of our customers whom we found
to have a good credit rating.
14. When he opened the door, he was not sure who he expected
the visitor to be.
15. In Beatrix the author has created a character whom the
reader feels is alive and real.
16. Whoever the company accepts will be sent to Brazil.
17. Let me know who you think you could use on the team.
18. Ted is so proud of his television set that he wants to show it
to whoever comes to the house.
19. The book is by Hardy, whom, you know, has written both
novels and poetry.
20. No matter who I mention in conversation, Stan always pre-
tends to know him well.
21. There is no pleasure in arguing with a person whom you
know counts on emotion to win his point.
22. My roommate, whom I feel sure will be very exciting, has
not yet returned from Europe.
23. Please let me know when you will arrive and who you would
like me to invite.
24. In many countries people have so few privileges that they
cannot marry who they please.
25. Who did you think him to be?
110
CASE OF PRONOUNS
14
EXERCISE 18
Follow the directions in Exercise 16.
1. Whom did you say will ride your horse in the race?
2. How can a toad have the power to cause the growth of a
wart on whomever touches it?
3. I should like to communicate with Major Eric Holdon, whom
I understand is with the 95th Division.
4. We carried word of the meeting to all the ranchers who we
found at home.
5. We can secure coaches for whomever needs help with his
work.
6. The firm was worried about whom should be in charge of
sales when Mr. Benton and him resigned.
7. Betty sat down near Frances and I and struggled with her
Latin, but us girls refused to help her because she doesn't
listen in class.
8. I don't know who to invite to the card club when Helen and
her go to the luncheon next week.
9. I have known some teachers who were very severe in their
handling of students, I included.
10. Think of all the immigrants whom you know have traveled
across the ocean to get a free education such as you and me
have.
11. Mr. Sutton Ames is an honorable man respected by all those
who he has any business with.
12. There was no doubt in the minds of the people about whom
should be elected.
13. Can you recommend the man as one who I can trust?
14. We challenged the students of Newton High, who we
thought we could beat easily.
15. Are you sure it was him who you saw downtown?
16. Whom do you consider to be the best writer in the senior
class?
17. The bus driver was very rude to my mother and I.
18. Choose whoever you want; I am tired of the whole question.
19. Our firm will not let we employees have a coflFee break.
20. Two great women who the world will always remember are
Florence Nightingale and Marie Curie.
Ill
15
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS
21. Einstein said Marie Curie was the only one of all celebrated
people who fame has not corrupted.
22. Marie Curie was one of a group of Polish girls for who learn-
ing had a great appeal.
23. She married Pierre Curie, whom everybody knows later
won the Nobel prize with her.
24. When she was about to be married, a friend who she was
very fond of offered to give Marie a wedding dress.
25. The young scientist asked the friend who had made the
oflFer to give her a dress that could be used later in the
laboratory where her and her husband worked.
15. PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS
Every verb has three principal parts: the present, the past,
and the past participle.* If you know these parts of any
verb, you can form all of its tenses. (See Section 3f. ) The
past and the past participle of many English verbs are
formed by adding -d, -ed, or -t to the present. These are
called regular, or weak, verbs.
RESENT
PAST
PAST PARTICIPLE
save
saved
saved
talk
talked
talked
ask
asked
asked
mean
meant
meant
spend
spent
spent
There are, however, other verbs, which do not follow this
pattern. These are called irregular, or strong, verbs, and they
form the past tense and past participle in several ways.
Although it is impossible to establish a rule for these
changes, groups of these words do often fall into a special
pattern. One group has a vowel change in the past tense,
and in some cases in the past participle as well.
* Often the present participle, a form made by adding -ing to the
present tense form, is considered one of the principal parts: swim,
swam, swum, swimming.
112
PRINCIPAL PAETS OF VERBS
15
PRESENT
PAST PAST PARTICIPLE
drink
drank
drunk
sing
sang
sung
cling
clung
clung
fight
fought
fought
sit
sat
sat
shoot
shot
shot
come
came
come
run
ran
run
find
found
found
Some verbs in this group, in addition to the vowel change,
add -n to the past participle.
PAST PAST PARTICIPLE
grow
break
fly
freeze
drive
write
eat
ride
fall
grew
broke
flew
froze
drove
wrote
ate
rode
fell
grown
broken
flown
frozen
driven
written
eaten
ridden
fallen
Another group changes its form completely in tlie past
tense and past participle.
PAST
PAST PARTICIPLE
bring
brought
brought
think
thought
thought
buy
bought
bought
stand
stood
Stood
go
went
gone
do
did
done
lie
lay
lain
catch
caught
caught
wind
wound
wound
113
US PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS
A few verbs change the last consonant, but not the vowel.
PKESENT
make
have
build
PAST PAST PARTICIPLE
made made
had had
built built
A few others have the same form for all three principal
parts.
PRESENT PAST PAST PARTICIPLE
burst burst burst
hurt hurt hurt
set set set
spread spread spread
cast cast cast
If you are uncertain about the correct verb form, consult
your dictionary.
Note: A word labeled slang, ohs., dial., or archaic in the
dictionary is not appropriate for formal speaking or writing.
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF SOME TROUBLESOME VERBS
PRESENT
PAST PARTICIPLE
ask
asked
asked
arise
arose
arisen
bear
bore
borne or bom
beat
beat
beaten
become
became
become
begin
began
begun
bid
bid
bid ( as in an
auction )
bid
bade
bidden, bid (as in
a command)
bite
bit
bitten
blow
blew
blown
break
broke
broken
bring
brought
brought
114
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS
15
PRESENT
PAST
PAST PARTICIPLE
build
built
built
burn
burned or
burnt
burned or burnt
burst
burst
burst
cast
cast
cast
catch
caught
caught
choose
chose
chosen
chmb
climbed
climbed
come
came
come
cut
cut
cut
deal
dealt
dealt
dig
dug
dug
dive
dived, dove
( coUoq. )
dived
do
did
done
drag
dragged
dragged
draw
drew
drawn
drink
drank
drunk
drive
drove
driven
drown
drowned
drowned
drug
drugged
drugged
eat
ate
eaten
fall
fell
fallen
feel
felt
felt
find
found
found
flee
fled
fled
flow
flowed
flowed
fly
flew
flown
forget
forgot
forgotten, forgot
freeze
froze
frozen
get
got
got, gotten
give
gave
given
go
went
gone
grow
grew
grown
hang (to execute
hanged
hanged
by hanging)
hang (other
hung
hung
meanings)
115
15
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS
PRESENT
PAST
PAST PARTICIPLE
happen
happened
happened ^
hear
heard
heard
help
helped
helped
hide
hid
hidden, hid
know
knew
known
lay
laid
laid
lead
led
led
lend
lent
lent
let
let
let
lie (to tell a
lied
lied
falsehood)
lie (to recline)
lay
lain
lose
lost
lost
mean
meant
meant
meet
met
met
pass
passed
passed
pay
paid
paid
prove
proved
proved, proven
put
put
put
raise
raised
raised
rise
rose
risen
ride
rode
ridden
ring
rang
rung
run
ran
run
say
said
said
see
saw
seen
set
set
set
shine
shone
shone
show
showed
shown, showed
shrink
shrank, shrunk
shrunk
sing
sang
sung
sink
sank, sunk
sunk
sit
sat
sat
sleep
slept
slept
speak
spoke
spoken
spend
spent
spent
spring
sprang, sprung
sprung
stand
stood
stood
steal
stole
stolen
116
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS
PRESENT
PAST
PAST PARTICIPLE
suppose
supposed
supposed
swim
swam
swum
swing
swung
swung
take
took
taken
tear
tore
torn
think
thought
thought
throw
threw
thrown
use
used
used
wake
waked, woke
waked
wear
wore
worn
win
won
won
wind
wound
wound
wring
wrung
wrung
write
wrote
written
15a. Do not misuse the past tense and the past par-
ticiple.
The past participle, the third principal part, makes a com-
pound tense of the verb only when it is accompanied by
some part of have or be.
The past form, or the second principal part, of a verb
is used vdthout an auxiliary.
ESENT
PAST
PAST PARTICIPLE
see
saw
seen
do
did
done
Wrong: I seen the flames reach the top of the building.
Right: I saw the flames reach the top of the building.
Wrong: The fireman done something very brave.
Right: The fireman did something very brave.
Seen and done are past participles and form tenses only
with the aid of some part of the verb have or be.
Wrong: I have saw several cock fights.
Right: I have seen several cock fights.
Wrong: Herbert was praised because he had did a good job on
the yearbook.
117
15iw PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS
Right: Herbert was praised because he had done a good job
on the yearbook.
Be careful not to write of for have.
Wrong: I could of gone to the circus.
Right: I could have gone to the circus last week.
Right: I could've gone to the circus,
15b. Do not confuse an irregular verb with a regular
verb.
It is easy to make the mistake of adding -ed to certain ir-
regular verbs.
Wrong: He drawed a bucket of water from the well.
Right: He drew a bucket of water from the well.
Wrong: Last night the wind Mowed at thirty miles an hour.
Right: Last night the wind hlew at thirty miles an hour.
EXERCISE 19
Most of the following sentences contain errors in the use
of the past tense and the past participle. Write on your paper
the number of each sentence and the correction or correc-
tions necessary. If no correction is necessary in a sentence,
write C beside the sentence number.
1. We went to the hospital to see Mary, who had broke her
arm.
2. Yesterday I swum across the lake at its widest point.
3. I never done a thing like that in my life.
4. She has tore the whole sleeve out of her dress.
5. I seen him go down the street just a few minutes ago.
6. I should of told you the whole story.
7. The letter was wrote on thin v/hite paper.
8. I had already bit into the apple when I seen that it was
rotten.
9. The boys had drunk all the milk that was in the icebox.
10. You should of gave him enough money.
11. Sue had never wore the dress before, and now it was tore
to pieces.
118
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS
15
12. The old woman taken a huge basket and set out for the
store.
13. If you have broke the test tube, you must pay for it.
14. I have hid him in the closet so that Jerry cannot find him.
15. We rung and rung, but nobody came to the door.
16. We are worried about Anna because she hasn't ate a thing
all day.
17. His balloon lay on the floor, bursted and tore.
18. "How far have you drove in this car?" asked the policeman.
19. We were sure that Angelo had not stole the money.
20. When you have wrote the letter, please show it to me.
21. Jack was badly beat by another boy in the neighborhood.
22. When I heard of him again, he had become a great physi-
cian.
23. Have you ever rode in an airplane?
24. You must of knew that the chair would break.
25. He done the work so carefully that no corrections were
needed.
EXERCISE 20
Follow directions in Exercise 19.
1. Our team was beat badly last Saturday.
2. His suit had shrank until it was almost unwearable.
3. Enterprising citizens have built new homes, tore down trees,
and made a beautiful residential section.
4. We drove out to Essex Inn for the reunion and seen a lot
of our old classmates.
5. When my mother seen my wet hair, she knew I had went
swimming.
6. Because my clothes had been soaked in the rain, I wrang
them out and hanged them up to dry.
7. When I had had a few directions, I begun driving the tractor
as if I had drove it for years.
8. A small shop near school serves the best milk shakes I have
ever drank.
9. We had poor preparation last year, for we seldom gave book
reports or done any outside reading.
10. When you come to see us, v\^e'll show you the lot we have
chose for our new home.
119
PRINCIPAL PABTS OF VERBS
11. When the balloon bursted, the child was frightened and
run to his mother for protection.
12. If I had worked last summer, I could of went to camp this
summer.
13. When I ran into the garden, I saw that Bill had fell from
the tree and probably broke his leg.
14. Several times the leash was bit into two pieces by my
playful dog, but I never done anything to punish him.
15. Betty was pointing excitedly at something in the water, but
the whistle drownded out her voice.
16. We thought we had drove about five hundred miles, but the
road sign said we had come only three hundred.
17. He swTing the bat and hit the ball over the fence.
18. The book could not have been wrote by a reputable author,
even though one critic has spoke highly of it.
19. When I past Charlie on the street, I thought I had never
saw a person so thin.
20. They lead us into the woods, where they would have stole
our equipment if we had not been careful.
15c. Learn to use correctly lie and lay, sit and set.
The principal parts of lie, lay, sit, and set are as follows:
PRESENT PAST PAST PARTICIPLE
He
lay
lain
lay
laid
laid (There is no word
laijed. )
sit
sat
sat
set
set
set
Lie and sit mean "rest" or "recline." They do not take an
object.
I have been lying on the beach all day.
Yesterday I lay on the beach for only a short time.
Mother lies down every afternoon for an hour.
I had just lain down when the telephone rang.
Please sit here.
How long have you sat there?
120
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS
Lay and set mean "place." They take objects.
Mr. Burke laid the notes on the desk before me.
I set the can of paint on the window sill.
Note: Set has some meanings in which it does not take an
object. For instance:
The sun, moon, and stars set.
Jelly sets when it becomes firm.
A setting hen is a hen that has been placed on eggs.
EXERCISE 21
In the following sentences, choose the correct form of
the verb lie or lay. On your paper write the number of each
sentence and beside it write the correct verb form, if an
incorrect form has been used. Write an explanation of every
correction that you make. If a sentence is correct, write C
beside the sentence number.
1. She laid down for an afternoon nap.
2. If the new tax bill is passed, it will lay the heaviest burden
on the poorest people.
3. Mrs. Johnson laid the baby in its crib for a nap.
4. A manufacturer cannot afford to let his machines lay idle
for long.
5. When I passed the house, Mr. Walters was laying the bricks
for a garden wall.
6. How long have you laid there in the sun?
7. The three silver dollars were laying on the counter.
8. I never have the time to lay down during the day.
9. He laid the foundation for his career by working in summer
theaters during vacation.
10. The trash has laid in the alley for a week.
11. I had just laid down for a little rest when the telephone
rang.
12. It was time to start for the station, but Tony still lay asleep
under the tree in the yard.
13. A foreign ship has laid on its side in the harbor for two
weeks.
121
16a
TENSE OF VERBS
14. This field was laying fallow when I was here last year.
15. On weekends the cove was bright with sails, but during the
week the boats laid quietly at anchor.
EXERCISE 22
In the following sentences, correct errors in the use of
sit and set in the way that you corrected the sentences in
Exercise 21.
1. If I set here much longer, I'll go crazy.
2. I wanted to sit out a row of plants this morning.
3. Set the basket on the table and come here.
4. Those women will set on the porch all day.
5. I was afraid the jelly wouldn't set because I hadn't used
enough sugar.
6. Let's sit where we can see the harbor.
7. In Shakespeare's day, the people sometimes brought boxes
to the theater to set on.
8. The sun had set long before we got back to the house.
9. I sat my bundle on the ground and went after the boy.
10. Jervis used to set for hours listening to the water flowing
into the cave.
11. While setting in his wheel chair with his drawings by his
side, he collapsed.
12. Did you set the plants in straight rows?
13. I have never been so tired of setting in one place.
14. I had just set down to sew when Albert arrived.
15. He sat on the porch and rocked for two hours.
16. TENSE OF VERBS
Tense shows the time of the action expressed by a verb.
Unless the tenses are carefully used, the reader or listener
will not understand what happened first or how long the
action continued. ( See Section 3f . )
16a. The present tense is used to show action hap-
pening now.
He hits the ball.
I see Sally coming across the campus.
122
TENSE OF VERBS
16b-c
This tense is also frequently used for statements that are
true, or likely to be true, at all times.
In As You Like it, Shakespeare presents the question of
love at first sight. (Permanently true; the question
continues to be presented whenever As You Like It
is read or seen.)
I was disappointed to find that people in Europe no
longer wear their national costumes, but dress just like
Americans.
Caution: Although the present tense is occasionally used to
make dramatic something that happened in the past, the
tone of the material is often cheapened by the use of this
device. Never tell a story by saying, "Then he says to
me. . . . Then I say. . . ." Use, "He said to me. . . . Then
I said. . . ."
16b. The past tense shows action that was completed
in the past.
We won the game.
Be careful when you tell a story not to shift from past to
present.
1 2
When Judy appeared, she was dressed in a filmy blue
3 4
dress cut very low. We all thought she looked beauti-
5 6
ful. In a few minutes the doorbell rings and in comes
Stanley. (Verbs 1, 2, 3, 4 are in the past; 5 and 6
are in the present.)
Note: For the use of can, may, might, see Glossary of Words
and Expressions Often Misused, page 295.
16c. The present perfect (fiave seen, has done) is used
for action that began in the past and has continued.
Bob has written to us every week for several years.
The ice has been too thin for skating.
123
16cl-e
TENSE OF VERBS
Caution: Use the present perfect tense, not the simple
present tense, to indicate time starting in the past and
continuing to the present.
Wrong: He is studying French for several years, but he cannot
speak a word of the language.
Right: He has been studying French for several years, but he
cannot speak a word of the language.
16d. The past perfect {bad written, had finished) indi-
cates action that occurred in the past before some other
action that happened in the past.
All the roads were blocked because the snow had fallen
fast. (It had fallen before the roads were blocked.)
In April they repaired the streets which had cracked dur-
ing the storm.
Notice the three different tenses required in the following
sentence:
I wrote (past tense) to Helen to tell her that Edith had
been (past perfect) very ill, but I have heard (present
perfect) nothing from her.
16e. To express a simple future (expectation) use shall
with / and we and will with aiS other subjects. {Should
is usually used like shall, and would like will.)
Be careful; the fireworks will burn your hand.
I shall be twenty in July.
I should be very glad to come for an interview at your
convenience.
To express strong feeling, determination, promise, com-
mand, on the part of the speaker, use will vs^ith 1 and we,
and shall with all other subjects.
He shall not go to the party unless he has finished his
work.
I will not go to that school; I don't like it.
I will see that the book reaches you tomorrow.
124
TENSE OF VERBS I^^W ■"■
Note: In informal English will is frequently used with all
subjects in the future tense.
16f. Should is used with all subjects to express obliga-
tion or duty or to express a condition in an if clause.
I should read more than I do.
If I should win the contest, we could go to Bermuda.
If he shoidd win the contest, he would have a good ca-
reer ahead.
16g. Use would with all subjects to express habitual
action.
He would go to the gardens day after day.
When we were in Paris, we would always have coffee at
a little sidewalk cafe.
16h. The future perfect tense is used to indicate that
an action or a condition will have been completed by
some time in the future.
I shall have learned to ride by the time that you come.
The snow will have melted before we start.
16i. Use a present infmitive unless you wish the in-
finitive to express time before the main verb.
I intended to see (not to have seen) you about the exam.
I should have preferred to tell her. (Not to have told)
16j. A present participle expresses action which fakes
place at the same time as the action expressed in the
main verb. The perfect participle usually expresses
action which began before the action in the main
verb.
Illogical: Starting school at eight, he finished at eighteen. (He
did not start at the same time at which he finished.)
Logical: Having started school at eight, he finished at eighteen.
(Perfect participle)
Illogical: Moving to Charleston, we found the town delightful.
Logical: Having moved to Charleston, we found the town de-
lightful.
125
16
TENSE OF VERBS
EXERCISE 23 _
In the following sentences, correct any errors in verb
tense by writing the correction and the reason for the cor-
rection beside the sentence number on your paper. If a
sentence contains no error, write C beside the sentence
number.
1. My son rushed into the room, grabs his coat, and goes dash-
ing down the hall.
2. A few minutes elapsed; then as suddenly as the storm ap-
peared, it disappeared.
3. It has been very cold since we are here.
4. I am waiting for this dance for three weeks.
5. When we entered our cabin, we found some thief made oflE
with our supplies.
6. Terry lives in New Mexico now. He is there for nearly two
years.
7. I expected to have gone to Richmond for the holidays.
8. On Saturday I discussed with Mr. Kelpert the material which
he presented to the committee on Friday.
9. From 1954 until now, he was director of the James Newell
Hospital.
10. After some discussion, we decided that real happiness did
not lie in material things, but in things of the spirit.
11. Leaving the Capitol, we went to the National Art Gallery.
12. Lady Castlewood thought that her husband's coldness was
due to the fact that she lost her beauty.
13. If they realized how ridiculous it was to believe in super-
stitions, people could save themselves many worries.
14. When I reached home yesterday, I was greatly surprised
to find the pair of ice skates you sent me.
15. If anyone had found out what Samuel Pepys said in his
diary, the writer would have been beheaded.
16. When Alex came of age, the Cossack society of free people
was no longer so free as it once had been.
17. People in white seemed to be everywhere in the hospital,
but no sound is heard.
18. When the respirometer started, the surgeon nods to the
nurse, and she hands him the instruments.
126
TENSE OF VERBS
16
19. Being built a hundred years ago, the hotel was finally con-
sidered unsafe.
20. I fed the lost dog as I fed my country dogs ten years ago,
and he came along all right.
21. I preferred to have told her nothing, but she dragged the
information from me.
22. Since the days of Adam, one of the most common of human
pastimes is the criticism by old people of the habits of the
young.
23. Starting out on foot, Sue reached Tampa at dusk.
24. Today is Sarah's birthday. I intended to send her a card.
EXERCISE 24
In current English usage, many people now use will with
all subjects to indicate future time. If you wish to practice
formal usage, refer to Section 16e. Many sentences below
depart from formal English usage in the use of shall and
tvill. On your paper, write the number of the sentence and
any corrections necessary. If the sentence is correct, write
C beside the number.
1. I think I shall see Doris tomorrow.
2. If you are not careful, you shall burn your fingers.
3. John will be present tomorrow if I have to drag him to the
meeting.
4. I am determined that he will not go to the game.
5. I would be very grateful for any assistance which you can
give me.
6. I am sure that my committee shall present a sensible bill
to the Senate.
7. I promise that I shall write to you every day.
8. We will be pleased to discuss the plans whenever you are
ready.
9. I will be very happy to make an appointment for you with
the Governor.
10. Before we move, we will have a sale of all the stock in our
old store.
11. I assure you we shall do everything in our power to make
your visit in our hotel a memorable one.
127
16
TENSE OF VERBS
12. If there is any special service that will make your stay
pleasant, I will be happy to arrange for it.
13. I would think that you would find it very pleasant to live
in the hotel where you work.
14. We will send your order as soon as possible.
15. As soon as the shoes are repaired, we shall send them to you
with the bill.
16. We will be very glad to have you consult with us at any
time.
17. We would like to ship your order at once, but we will have
to wait until our shipping room has handled previous orders.
18. If you will write your name and address on the enclosed
card, I shall send you a copy of our booklet.
19. We will need some information concerning your credit
standing before we can open an account for you.
20. I am afraid that I will fail in French.
21. We would be very grateful for your prompt payment.
22. Since I am familiar with the apparatus used in a dentist's
ofiGce, I should not have to be taught how to use it.
23. We will be pleased to place your name on our mailing list.
24. I would like to apply for the job advertised in yesterday's
News.
25. I shall consider it a personal favor if you will permit me
to send you samples of our merchandise.
26. We hope that we will hear from you and wish to assure you
that we will give you our best services on all occasions.
27. We would like to see you; so why not pay us a visit?
28. If you cannot get tickets for the first balcony, get them in
the orchestra; and I shall pay you when I see you.
29. If we win the game this afternoon, I will receive a star to
place beside my major letter.
30. I shall definitely stick to tennis this summer, and maybe in
the fall I will be able to enter the club tournament.
EXERCISE 25
The following paragraph contains errors that are a result
of two things: (1) a shift in verb tense; (2) an illogical
128
MOOD 17ci— b
relationship to the basic tense. Review Section 16a-d. Then
rewrite the paragraph, keeping a basic tense and making all
verbs show a logical relationship to that tense. When you
begin to write, decide whether the story is to be presented
with the past tense or the present tense as the basic one. All
tenses used in the exercise should show a relationship to that
basic tense.
When we visited Washington last year, we had a marvelous
time at the zoo, which contained many interesting animals sent
from time to time as gifts to various Presidents. As we walk
along, suddenly we see a bear wearing a hat. My sister is so
excited that she rushes right up to the cage. The guard grabbed
her arm and pushed her aside. Then he tells us that this is the
bear that appears on all the posters warning us against forest
fires. As a cub he was rescued from a forest fire in New Mexico.
The U. S. Forestry Service thought he would be a good symbol
and had used him to urge us to be careful about fires in the
woods. He was wearing a hat when we saw him because he has
just had his picture taken.
17. MOOD
The mood of a verb indicates the manner in which a
statement is made. Every verb has three moods — the indica-
tive, the imperative, and the subjunctive. ( See Section 3e. )
17a. Use the indicative mood to state a fact or to ask
a question of fact.
Who started the rumor? (Question of fact)
Alfred told the story first. (Statement of fact)
The whole story is false. (Statement of fact)
17b. Use the imperative mood to express a command
or a request (go, open, sfiuf, sing).
Shut the door.
Open a window.
129
PRESENT
INDICATIVE
I am
we are
you are
he is
you are
they are
PAST INDICATIVE
I was
we were
you were
he was
you were
they were
PRESENT
INDICATIVE
I come
we come
you come
he comes
you come
they come
Mm ^^^^ MOOD
1 7c. Learn to recognize the subjunctive forms.
PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE
(if) I be (if) we be
(if) you be (if) you be
(if) he be (if) they be
PAST SUBJUNCTIVE
(if) I were (if) we were
(if) you were (if) you were
(if) he were (if) they were
PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE
(if) I come (if) we come
(if) you come (if) you come
(if) he come (if) they come
Note: There are only three differences in form between the
subjunctive mood and the indicative mood: (1) the third
person singular present subjunctive has no -s ending; (2)
be is used with all persons in the present subjunctive of
the verb to he; ( 3 ) were is used with all persons in the past
subjunctive of the verb to he.
Although the subjunctive does not appear in current
English very frequently, there are some constructions that
still require it, especially in formal English.
IZd. Use the subjunctive y^ere to express a wish.
I wish I were a good driver.
He wishes he were tall.
17e. Use the subjunctive were to express a condition
contrary to fact.
If I were you, I'd refuse to let her use my car.
If we were at home, we could consult our unabridged
dictionary for the derivation of the word.
(I am not you. We are not at home. Hence the statements
in the preceding examples are contrary to fact. )
130
MOOD li^ ■■■■B
Note: The subjunctive is used also to suggest a condition
that is improbable, though not completely contrary to fact.
Suppose he were to tell the whole story!
Caution: Not every clause that begins with if requires a
subjunctive.
If he was out late last night, he is probably still asleep.
(The speaker thinks he probably was out late.)
If she was there, I didn't see her. (The speaker is willing
to accept the fact that she was there even though he
did not see her.)
17f. Use the subjunctive were after as though, as If
to express doubt or uncertainty.
He talks as if he were the only intelligent person in the
group.
She looked as though she were completely exhausted.
Note: Do not use the subjunctive after though when it is
not preceded by as.
Even diough he is deaf, he doesn't have to shout.
17g. Use the subjunctive in that clauses expressing
necessity, mild command, or a parliamentary motion.
I move that the committee he appointed by the president.
It is essential that he appear at the meeting.
The committee insisted that he tell the whole story.
I suggest that the topic be considered at our next meet-
ing.
17h. In parallel constructions, do not shift the mood
of verbs.
Wrong: If I were in your position and was offered a trip to
Europe, I'd certainly go.
Right: If I were in your position and were offered a trip to
Europe, I'd certainly go.
131
17
IvIOOD
EXERCISE 26
Correct errors in the mood of verbs in the following sen-
tences. On your paper, write beside the sentence number
the correct form of the verb and the reason for the correc-
tion. If no correction is necessary in a sentence, write C
beside the sentence number.
1. If I was Sandy, I'd train that spaniel.
2. Many times he wished he was back in his old job.
3. If her mother was well, Ellen would go with us to the picnic.
4. If I was transferred to the Polytechnic Institute, I could get
the algebra I need.
5. If I was you, I'd stay away from Jane.
6. I could do the job more quickly if I was not constantly an-
noyed by my neighbor's radio.
7. I move that he is reinstated at once.
8. My neighbor, who is eighty-five, dresses as if she was a
woman of thirty.
9. She looked as if she was frightened to death.
10. The law requires that every operator of a motor vehicle has
a driver's license.
11. If I was the principal, there would be some changes made.
12. The lawyer insists that he signs the papers.
13. He acted as if he was president of the university.
14. If your work was done carefully, you would get a promotion.
15. The company wishes that it was able to fill the order at
once, but the materials are not available.
16. If Mother's health were better, we could make some plans
for the summer.
17. He wrote his autobiography just as if he was writing about
somebody else.
18. If he was disappointed, why didn't he tell me?
19. I demand that he gives me a written apology.
20. I often wish I was able to sing as Todd can.
21. If only this was next Thursday, I could pay you what I owe.
22. Every time I see a ship sailing for Europe I wish I was on it.
132
MOOD "^
23. Even though I was exhausted, I kept on studying.
24. I move that a committee is appointed to study the problem.
EXERCISE 27
Follow the directions in Exercise 26.
1. If Howard was a college student, he would be accepted by
the medical school.
2. The company requests that he pays his bill at once.
3. Though he works hard, he does not get promoted.
4. I am sure that Catherine is not married. Her mother would
tell us if she was.
5. If I was not so nervous, I should not mind speaking before
an audience.
6. Mr. Sommers asks that action is delayed until more infor-
mation can be obtained.
7. The man's face was so red that he looked as if he was going
to have apoplexy.
8. Eloise insists that her sister is told the news at once.
9. I wish Elinor was taller than she is.
10. If the President were given a free hand and was sent to
negotiate, you would see some action.
11. If he is such good company, why don't you invite him to
the party?
12. It was so warm today that I felt as though it were summer.
13. If our committee were more serious-minded, we should ac-
complish more than we do.
14. As the people looked out over the Mediterranean, it seemed
as if Corsica was rising from the sea.
15. If the country is interested in wise laws, it must send men
of wisdom to its lawmaking body.
16. If I was sure to fail, I think I should have been told.
17. If he was sorry for Ed, he showed no evidence of his feeling.
18. If he was sorry for Ed, he would help the boy in some way.
19. If the machine was shipped on Tuesday, I should have been
notified.
20. If the situation seem a bit improbable, remember that there
are stranger things in life than in novels.
133
■ ^V ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB USAGE
18. ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB USAGE
Most errors in the use of adjectives and adverbs are the
result not of ignorance, but of carelessness. They are made
because people develop bad speech habits as a result of
what they hear among careless friends or coworkers.
Remember that whenever you want a word that tells how
something is done, you need an adverb.
The President acted ivisely in the crisis.
Scientists have worked tirelessly in their search for new
drugs.
We must walk rapidly if we are to reach the station in
time.
18a. An adjective modifies a noun or pronoun.
A free ticket.
A careless speaker.
Tired but cheerful, we reached the top of the mountain.
(The adjectives tired and cheerful modify the pronoun
we.)
18b. An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or an-
other adverb.
We want you to speak freely. (Modifies infinitive)
He spoke carelessly. (Modifies verb)
Sue has a very free manner. (Modifies adjective free)
Morton spoke too carelessly. (Modifies adverb carelessly)
18c. Do not use an adjective to modify a verb or an-
other adjective.
Wrong: I sure am glad to see you.
Right: I surely am glad to see you.
Wrong: He's some fat.
Riglit: He's very fat.
Wrong: Tell the children to play quiet.
Right: Tell the children to play quietly.
Wrong: The poor fellow looked real happy when he saw us.
Right: The poor fellow looked very happy when he saw us.
134
ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB USAGE
Note: Not all words ending in ly are adverbs. Lovely and
holy, for example, are adjectives.
EXERCISE 28
In the following sentences, correct errors in the use of ad-
jectives and adverbs. Write the sentence number on your
paper. Then write the correct word and the reason for the
correction. If no correction is necessary, write C beside the
sentence number.
1. Some people take life too serious.
2. Everything went off perfect, but we sure were worried.
3. He rides a horse real wild.
4. A student must watch his grammar very close.
5. Why don't you speak plain?
6. We tried to bring the plane in and have it land smoothly.
7. The women were dressed poor and unattractive.
8. We are afraid that Tom won't make the team because he
doesn't play very good.
9. I think she sings lovely.
10. Doesn't Carol skate beautiful?
EXERCISE 29
Follow the directions in Exercise 28.
1. Who do you suppose told my father I was doing terrible in
physics?
2. Even when Sidney spoke extemporaneous, he was very in-
teresting.
3. The Shimerdas lived very poor in a little hut on the prairie.
4. When they came to the prairie, they thought it would be
heaven; but they changed their minds complete.
5. Any criticisms that you give will be treated confidential.
6. Why don't you give the assessment board the facts straight-
forward?
7. The course is supposed to be extremely hard, but I think
you will do good in it.
8. Jane played the part of the blind woman very realistic.
9. If I don't reply to a letter quick enough, I forget what to
write.
135
I^^^l ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB USAGE
10. We didn't do so good in football this season.
11. The poor people in India were near starving.
12. Dickens's purpose in writing was to show how wretched the
poor people in England lived.
13. A nomber of us are working real hard to make the pep
assembly a success.
14. You sure do play the piano good.
15. On Simday night Ethel and I did our act at the Woodholme
Country Club, and it turned out real good.
16. Since I worked for my money, I thought I could spend it
wise or not as I pleased; but my mother thought different.
17. Your merchandise will be shipped as quick as possible.
18. At the edge of the fairgrounds was a row of clumsy built
stalls.
19. My brother has been extraordinary successful in advertis-
20. Do come to see us next summer when the bass and trout
are biting good.
21. My feet hurt terrible in these shoes.
22. After her success on the stage, she treated her old friends
very indifferently.
23. The Burdens, who were early pioneers, learned to live in
their simple home as comfortable as anybody could.
24. She hasn't very good manners. She eats noisy.
25. Mrs. Kropotkin acted very rude toward her neighbor.
1 Sd. After verbs such as smell, taste, feel, sound, look,
appear, become (used intransitively), use an adjective
if the word describes the subject and an adverb if the
word describes the action in the verb.
He looked cold standing in the snow. (Adjective de-
scribes he.)
He looked coldly at me and left the room. (Adverb tells
how he looked. )
I feel awkward when people look at me. (Adjective)
I felt awkwardly in pocket after pocket. (Adverb)
The cake tastes good. (Adjective)
He tasted the mixture cautiously. (Adverb)
The flower smells sweet. (Adjective)
136
ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB USAGE
Note: Badly is often misused after feel.
Right: I feel bad. (Sick or wicked)
Right: Arthur spells badly.
Some words may be either adjectives or adverbs: cheap,
fast, deep, wrong, well, tight, hard, fair, first, slow, loud.
Some of these also have forms in ly: slowly, loudly. The
ly forms are preferred as adverbs in formal English. Do not
say firstly, secondly; first and second are preferable. Well is
an adjective when it means the opposite of sick. It is an
adverb when it tells how something is done. Never use good
to tell how something is done.
Right: You acted well in the play.
18e. Be accurate in the use of comparatives and su-
perlatives. (See also Section 67.)
Most adjectives and adverbs change their forms to show
a greater or smaller degree of the quality they indicate.
This change is called comparison. There are three degrees of
comparison: positive, comparative, and superlative.
POSITIVE DEGREE COMPARATIVE DEGREE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE
cool (adj.) cooler coolest
soon (adv.) sooner soonest
In comparisons that indicate less of a quality, the words
less and least are used with all adjectives and adverbs that
can be compared.
POSITIVE
COMPARATIVE
SUPERLATIVE
weak
less weak
least weak
honest
less honest
least honest
This construction, however, can be avoided if it seems
awkward.
Formal: She is less weak than she was yesterday.
Better: She is not so weak. Or,
She is stronger.
137
^ ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB USAGE
Most adjectives and adverbs of one syllable form the
comparative degree by adding -er and the superlative degree
by adding -est.
OSITIVE
COMPARATIVE
SUPERLATIVE
tough
tougher
toughest
small
smaller
smallest
fast
faster
fastest
Adjectives of two syllables usually add -er for the com-
parative and -est for the superlative. Sometimes, however,
such adjectives have two forms for both comparative and
superlative.
POSITIVE
heavy
lovely
handsome
deadly
COMPARATIVE
heavier
lovelier
more handsome
or
handsomer
more deadly
or
deadlier
SUPERLATIVE
heaviest
loveliest
most handsome
or
handsomest
most deadly
or
deadliest
Adverbs that end in ly and adjectives of more than two
syllables usually form the comparative and superlative by
prefixing more and most.
POSITIVE
carefully
quickly
steadily
beautiful (adj.)
competent (adj.)
COMPARATIVE
more carefully
more quickly
more steadily
more beautiful
more competent
SUPERLATIVE
most carefully
most quickly
most steadily
most beautiful
most competent
Some adjectives and adverbs are compared irregularly.
good (adj.)
bad (adj.)
badly (adv.)
well (adv.)
better
worse
worse
better
best
worst
worst
best
138
ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB USAGE
1. The comparative is used when two persons or objects or
actions are compared; the superlative is used when more
than two are compared.
I bought two new dresses. Which do you think is more
becoming?
Which of your eyes has better vision?
The sorrel horse galloped faster than the bay.
He is the most brilliant student in the class.
In informal English, the superlative is often used when
only two things are compared.
2. Avoid double comparatives and superlatives; that is,
do not use more or most before a word to which -er or -est
has been added to form the comparative or the superlative.
Wrong: He is more happier than his brother.
Right: He is happier than his brother.
3. Choose the comparative form carefully. Do not con-
fuse the comparative of an adjective with the comparative of
an adverb.
Wrong: He learns things easier than Gertrude does.
Right: He learns things more easily than Gertrude does.
4. A few adjectives like round, square, unique, and equal
are logically incapable of comparison because their meaning
is absolute. An object is either round or not round. It can-
not logically be rounder. However, because these words
have, in a measure, lost their superlative force, they are
often compared in informal English, and even good writers
use adverbs like quite or completely before them.
5. Avoid including the subject compared if the subject
is part of a group with which it is being compared. Use
other or else in such cases.
Illogical
Better
Illogical
Better
Butte is larger than any city in Montana.
Butte is larger than any other city in Montana.
My brother is taller than anyone in our family.
My brother is taller than anyone else in our family.
139
H»«^B^ ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB USAGE
18f. These and those are plural forms and should not
be used to modify singular nouns.
Illogical: These kind of dogs are fine for hunting.
Better: This kind of dog is fine for hunting.
Better: These kinds of dogs are fine for hunting.
Do not use here or there after the adjectives this or that.
Wrong: This here man is guilty.
Right: This man is guilty.
The use of a or an after this kind or this sort is not de-
sirable in formal English.
Undesirable: This kind of a day always depresses me.
Better: This kind of day depresses me.
Note: These kind of people is accepted by some writers
as standard informal English.
18g. Be carefd of the adjectives fewer and less.
Less refers to quantity and is used M^ith singular nouns
(less money, less food, less sugar). Fewer refers to num-
ber and is used with plural nouns {fewer people, fewer
animals ) .
18h. In formal English due is used as an adjective
modifying a noun.
The old woman said that her good health was due to
careful exercise. (Due modifies health.)
The woes of the world are due to poor thinking. (Due
modifies woes.)
The expression due to is often used as a preposition,
especially in news reports, radio talks, and business letters.
Informal: We have been unable to ship your order due to a
strike in the factory.
Informal: The business has expanded due to the energy and
hard work of our salesmen.
140
ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB USAGE 1^9 1
18i. Be careful not to overuse adjectives or adverbs.
The overuse of adjectives and adverbs will weaken your
writing. Try to choose verbs which will express your mean-
ings without the help of too many modifiers.
EXERCISE 30
Follow the directions in Exercise 28.
1. My dog Smoky sure has cost me a lot of money this summer.
2. In Sicily a message can be delivered quicker by foot than
by telephone.
3. This here picture is not very clear.
4. He looked steady; so we gave him the job.
5. Esther looked steady through the window at the snow-cov-
ered fields.
6. I sure have felt bad all day; I didn't sleep good last night.
7. In the Romantic Period the poets were able to write more
freer than in the Classical Period.
8. Gertrude works faster than any beautician in the shop.
9. An engineer must do his planning thorough in order to
avoid all sources of weakness in the finished structure.
10. Rachel is more patient than anybody in her class.
11. One of our big problems today is whether the schools are
educating young people satisfactory.
12. There would be less absentees if the students took their
work more serious.
13. When Antonia worked in the fields with the men, she be-
came more and more rougher.
14. The personnel manager hired Gloria because her letter was
typed more neater than mine.
15. Our sales campaign has been extraordinary successful.
16. I was entertained wonderful at your home, and the experi-
ences are still vividly in my mind.
17. Jimmy draws better than any boy in the art class.
18. Mother tasted the dessert careful to see whether it was too
sweet.
19. She added some sugar because she found that the frosting
didn't taste sweetiy enough.
141
ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB USAGE
20. I have always v^^anted a real good record player, and the
one you sent me sure does make me happy.
21. Matilda looked uneasy; I'm sure something was worrying
her.
22. Ted looked around uneasy as if he thought he was being
watched.
23. An owl sees much clearer at night than a hawk does.
24. These kind of people are always ready to criticize others
severe.
25. I don't know which I enjoy most, opera or ballet.
EXERCISE 31
Follow the directions in Exercise 28.
1. The surgeon performed the operation as skillful as he could.
2. My cousin's manners improved considerable during his stay
in camp.
3. He spoke very condescending to anyone under thirty.
4. The most favorite book of George Eliot was the Bible.
5. The success of a democratic nation is dependent upon citi-
zens who vote intelligent.
6. We wish to educate our voters to think independent and
not to be attached secure to the political bosses.
7. I think this paper is arranged much neater than yours.
8. The store has ordered these two types of materials. Which
do you consider most durable?
9. Every year there are less opportunities in the business world
for people over fifty.
10. By now, I suppose the Florida sun has tanned you wonder-
ful and given you a real healthy appearance.
11. Stephen has been extraordinary successful with his engi-
neering experiments.
12. I'm not near so tired as I was yesterday.
13. I was brought up so strict that I never had a date until I
was twenty.
14. The cantaloupes of our state are uniform good fruit, but they
are not always graded careful.
15. I didn't realize how much my mother hated moving to the
city, because I was real young at the time.
142
PREPOSITION AND CONJUNCTION USAGE I^^Cl
16. Your invitation sounds very pleasantly, but Mother has felt
badly all day and I cannot leave her.
17. I feel very strong about all questions involving the relation-
ship between labor and capital.
18. My violin sounds different from yours.
19. One of the salespeople was reprimanded because she was
acting impertinent to customers.
20. The milk tastes sour because it was left out of the refrig-
erator.
21. The cook tasted the soup careful and then added more
pepper.
22. The Italian lecturer spoke English plainer than some of my
friends do.
23. The posters used by the advertising department of our com-
petitors are not near so attractive as ours.
24. I can understand that the decision must appear sudden to
you.
25. When I had my paper route, I always kept a careful watch
for the McDermotts' dog, which had a habit of attacking
strangers unexpected.
19. PREPOSITION AND CONJUNCTION
USAGE
The most common errors in the use of prepositions and
conjunctions are made in two ways:
1. By confusing a preposition with a conjunction in usage.
The choice between like and as, or between without and
unless, is an example.
2. By choosing the wrong preposition to accompany
certain words. Use different from, not different than, for
example.
19a. In written English use like as a preposition or a
verb, not as a conjunction.
Although like is frequently used as a conjunction in
colloquial, casual English, the best speakers and writers still
prefer to use as or as if when a clause follows,
143
19b-c
PREPOSITION AND CONJUNCTION USAGE
Colloquial: The aviator opened his parachute and dropped to
the ground like he had wings.
Formal: The aviator opened his parachute and dropped to
the ground as if he had wings.
Colloquial: Sarah's friends were interested in books and travel
like she was.
Formal: Sarah's friends were interested in books and travel
as she was.
Colloquial: Our main objection to Miss Kay is that she treats us
like we were children.
Formal: Our main objection to Miss Kay is that she treats us
as if we were children.
Right: Jane looks like her father. (Preposition)
Right: You are behaving like a baby. (Preposition)
As is a preposition when it means "in the role of." Notice,
however, the difference in meaning:
Right
Right
Right
Right
He acts like a madman.
He acts as the madman in the play.
He acts like the chairman of the club.
He acts as the chairman of the club.
Like should not be used in place of the conjunction that.
Wrong: I always felt like Roger would be successful.
Right: I always felt that Roger would be successful.
T9b. Use unless as a conjunction, without as a prep-
osition.
Right: The crops will die without rain.
Right: The crops will die unless we have rain soon.
Right: We will not rent the apartment without a redecoration.
Right: We will not rent the apartment unless you redecorate
for us.
19c. Use the appropriate preposition with certain
words.
A good dictionary will show the correct prepositions to
be used with many words. (See Section 43.)
144
PREPOSITION AND CONJUNCTION USAGE l^F
Note: In casual English, it is all right to use a preposition
at the end of a sentence, but it should not be an unnecessary
preposition.
Wrong: Where are you going to?
Right: Where are you going?
Right: What are you writing with?
EXERCISE 32
From each pair of words or expressions in parentheses in
the following sentences, choose the correct word or ex-
pression and write it on your paper beside the sentence
number. Write also your reason for each choice.
1. He cannot pitch well (without, unless) he warms up thor-
oughly.
2. Did you have my suit cleaned (like, as) I told you to do?
3. We didn't feel (like, that) this city was large enough to
handle the convention.
4. The Sewells were really only neighbors, but they acted
(like, as if) they were part of our family.
5. We were treated (like, as) kings during our visit.
6. The poor man never answers (without, unless) he first knows
what his wife is going to say,
7. The team is shaping up nicely, but it doesn't yet look (like,
as if ) it will be a championship team.
8. The doctor says that the patient will die (unless, without)
he has an operation.
9. The awnings will be torn to pieces (without, unless) you
pull them up at once.
10. Your answer to the problem looks (like, as if) it should be
correct.
11. Joel was eighteen, and (as, like) most boys of his age, he
was looking for excitement.
12. The scenery in Puerto Rico was diflFerent (than, from) any-
thing I had ever seen.
13. He feels (like, that) the world is against him.
14. We rode the first five waves (like, as if) we were on a
roller coaster.
15. My Canadian friends at camp were very much (like, as) me.
145
■ ACHIEVEMENT TESTS IN USAGE
20. ACHIEVEMENT TESTS IN USAGE
20a. Achievement Test I (Sections IT -14).
Write on your paper the number of each sentence. Beside
the number, write the correction or corrections necessary
and give the reason for each correction. Write the whole
sentence only when a complete revision is necessary. If a
sentence contains no errors, v^rite C beside its number.
Examples:
1. Every one of the students have their own lockers.
2. Hazel lives near Bernice and I.
Correction:
1. has 1. subject and verb agreement
his own locker pronoun and antecedent agreement
2. me 2. object of preposition near
1. One of my favorite actors is Alfred Lunt, whom you know
often performs with his wife.
2. The violinist who I should select as my favorite was a child
prodigy.
3. Since the cause of many diseases are unknown, a number of
medical men is kept busy in research.
4. There's many ways to solve a problem, but everybody thinks
that their way is the right one.
5. The company announced that every employee could obtain
their bonus by stopping at the cashier's desk.
6. To help the depositor keep their account straight, we send
you a statement at the end of each month.
7. The only way in which disease among cattle and domestic
animals have been stopped are by quarantine.
8. I am sure that the party will be a success and everyone will
enjoy themselves.
9. Why don't you come to spend a few days with Mother and I?
10. The business, including the shop, the goods on hand, and
all the fixtures, were sold for fifty thousand dollars.
11. I don't know who he could be.
12. You are expected to send the papers to Mr. Henderson and
I at once.
146
ACHIEVEMENT TESTS IN USAGE
13. Members are requested to give the secretary the names of
any guests who they intend to bring to the dinner meeting.
14. The transit company is replacing cars with buses and there-
fore have many more vehicles to keep in repair.
15. This is my old coat. I always wear it when it rains.
16. We cannot accuse the man unless we are sure it was him
who you saw enter the room.
17. The Bastille played an important part in the French Revo-
lution because it was a symbol of their suffering.
18. The congressman who we elected from our district is a man
of absolute integrity.
19. The garden has been completely rearranged, which ought to
give Jane and I a chance to win the contest.
20. Dan went with his brother to the oflBce, where he told the
whole story to the principal.
21. A teen-ager's opinion, like their problems, are often taken
for granted.
22. When Mother plays bridge with Mrs. Summers, she argues
about every trick.
23. Mr. Sherwood is studying the question of who we should
appoint as director.
24. Every one of us were told that we must pay for the labora-
tory materials that we broke.
25. Her and Anthony left the prairie and went to the town to
live.
26. Mother decided to let Carol and I go to the circus.
27. The nationally advertised price of these stunning trays are
double the sale price that we offer to customers who we
have placed on our A-1 credit list.
28. The beautiful scenery with its snow-capped mountains, green
pastures, and blue lakes remind him of Switzerland.
29. The number of people who attended the meetings regularly
were only fifty.
30. The electron, as well as the proton, were shown to carry
electrical charges.
31. The privilege of voting is ignored by many people, and
consequently there is in many legislative bodies corrupt
politicians sent there by the bosses.
32. If between you and I no compromise is possible, there seems
little chance of us doing any business.
147
■ ACHIEVEMENT TESTS IN USAGE
33. The prize will be given to whoever makes the largest number
of sales.
34. Enclosed is some of our business reply envelopes on which
is printed our new address and the name of our new man-
ager.
35. Fred does not want Henry and I to go with him.
36. Of all the contestants, Bert is the only one whom we think
have followed the directions exactly.
37. Please do not refer to us, Emma and I, as stage-struck
juveniles.
38. I am sure that one of the men who is present is the guilty
person.
39. George's father, whom I understand once led a band, taught
Frank and I to play.
40. It wasn't until last evening that everyone knew their parts
and Jack and myself breathed freely again.
41. When the ballots have been counted, please send a report
to the principal, who will forward same to the secretary of
the Youth Commission.
42. I was told to give the message to whomever was in the office.
43. It is economical to purchase it in a large bottle.
44. Cataloguing and arranging our specimens for the exhibit
has kept my brother and I busy during the whole summer.
45. Mr. Harrison thinks that either you or I are to be selected
for the new position,
46. After three months in this business, I begin to feel at last
like one of the people who really belongs to the organiza-
tion.
47. An inspection has been made in order to determine whether
the new arrangement of the stacks in the library are likely
to contribute to efficiency.
48. The insignia of the Medical Corps consists of a winged stafiE
with two serpents twined around it.
49. If each of the members of the committee do their work
carefully, we shall have an excellent report.
50. The results of the inspection, as covered by the attached
report, indicates that the buildings of the plant is in satis-
factory condition.
148
ACHIEVEMENT TESTS IN USAGE
20b. Achievement Test II (Sections 11-19).
Follow the directions for Achievement Test I.
1. Every cat and dog in five counties were quarantined.
2. If it had been necessary, Jim could beat any of the men.
3. The party at Goldie's house was better than any party we
have had.
4. Sarah has not been well; so she don't go downtown like
she used to,
5. This heat would be dreadful if a breeze wasn't blowing.
6. When the Crimean War broke out, the techniques of nursing
were dreadful out of date.
7. The doctors worked valiant, but they needed the assistance
of nurses very bad.
8. Joan says she has felt badly all day.
9. I could of gone if I had knew that you were going,
10. I'm afraid his foot is froze.
11. The gadgets which we invent makes life more and more
simpler.
12. If I was him, I'd try a new job.
13. After we helped put up the tents, we carried water for the
circus animals.
14. I drunk a huge glass of milk when I come home from
school.
15. The lifeguard said that the boys almost drownded because
they swum out too far.
16. We did not think that the experiment would turn out very
good.
17. He told Mr, Kenworthy that he was sure to be on the com-
mittee.
18. Each of the forty-eight samples were placed in a separate
jar,
19. Headlines in the newspaper is arranged so that it attracts
attention.
20. Since the T-formation has been used successful, many school
teams have adopted it.
21. The old man's eyes reflected the kindliness that laid in his
heart.
149
ACHIEVEMENT TESTS IN USAGE
22. I wish I was able to tell Jack and she the whole story.
23. Neither Mother nor I are surprised to hear that Edith failed;
she don't do her work careful at all.
24. When I left, after being with the board for ten years, I
felt like a piece of my life was gone.
25. When you consider that neither of us have did any shooting
for a year, we are not doing so bad.
26. It is always Mr. Peters and me who is reprimanded if things
go wrong in the oflRce.
27. Digging a hole ten feet deep, the boys went away and left
it.
28. A strange man whom, we learned later, knew Gertrude at
one time, enters the house and joins the party.
29. He shall not use my money. I will see that he does not.
30. The conference will probably last until five o'clock; so there
is no point in you waiting any longer.
31. Since you invited Paul and I for a visit, our father has been
terrible sick; so we will not be able to accept your invitation.
32. A first prize of an expense-paid trip to Europe will be given
to whoever can solve the puzzle.
33. Everybody said he acted as a fool at the wedding.
34. New cars don't jump direct from the drafting board to the
production room like some people think they do.
35. We recommend that there be appointed an experienced
superintendent of waterworks.
36. Losing his fortune in an investment in oil, he begun life
anew at fifty.
37. It was not wise for you to have given him the key.
38. The prize was to be given to whomever made the highest
mark in German, but I never thought it would be me who
would win it.
39. I worked at the job only two months when I was obliged to
leave in order to have accompanied my family to Nebraska.
40. Because of the heat wave, air conditioning sold very satis-
factory last summer.
41. Every night there has been some sort of party; and although
I would have loved to have gone to all of them, it was
physically impossible.
150
ACHIEVEMENT TESTS IN USAGE
42. It says in this article that the average married person is more
healthier than the average single person because they have
their meals more regular.
43. Since a good picture can sell a product, advertisers are
turning to them to improve business.
44. If you won an election against John Cameron, you have did
very good indeed.
45. The directors wish to express their appreciation for your
cooperation during the year and welcomes this opportunity
to wish you a Merry Christmas.
46. The firm objects to me studying Spanish because every man
and woman in the oflfice have spent a good deal of time on
some similar subject that have not helped their work.
47. I have always felt like I'd like to be a dancer.
48. This school is different than all of the other schools I have
attended.
49. The beach was so pleasant I could of laid for hours in the
sun.
50. One of the most interesting sights in Seattle are the Cascade
Mountains.
151
Capitalization
21, USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS
A piece of writing in which capitals are scattered about
freely or omitted where they should be used gives the im-
pression almost of illiteracy. It is true that some modern
writers have ignored the rules of capitalization, but it is
not wise for students to be careless about these rules.
21a. Capitalize the first word of every sentence and
the first word of a direct quotation.
Our new car is dark blue.
He asked, "Is your new car blue?"
21b. Capitalize the first word of a line of poetry.
Shall I wasting in despair
Die, because a woman's fair?
21c. Capitalize the word which follows Resolved or
Whereas in formal resolutions.
Resolved: An automobile driver's license should be
granted to no one under twenty-one.
21 d. Capitalize the important words in a title of a
book, poem, play, magazine, magazine article, or
musical composition. (See Sections 27i and 34a.)
Harpers Magazine, Romeo and Juliet, The Moonlight
Sonata, Death of a Salesman
152
USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS
Note: Capitalize prepositions, conjunctions, or articles (a,
an, the) only at the beginning or end of a title or when
they consist of five or more letters.
21 e. Capitalize the first word in each topic of an out-
h'ne and the first word in each item of a list.
1, Causes of slums
A. Crowded conditions
B. Poor housing
Our investigation shows the following:
1. Poor sanitation
2. Lack of parks and recreation space
3. Unpaved sti-eets
21 f. Capitalize the pronoun / and the interjection O.
Usually I find the first ripe chestnuts on the tree.
O mighty river, flow on!
Note: O is rarely used. The more common interjection oh
is not capitahzed unless it begins a sentence.
21 g. Capitalize all proper nouns and words derived
from proper nouns. (See Section 1.) They include the
following:
1. Names of holidays, months, and days of the week
(Christmas, February, April, Monday).
2. Names of persons and titles accompanying these names,
but usually not the titles alone unless the title is used in
place of a name. Mother and Father are capitalized only
when used as names.
Fred, Helen, Mr. Brown, Dr. Anderson, Captain Wharton,
Aunt Helen, the doctor, the captain, my avmt
Can you hear the whisties. Father?
Note: The words President and Vice President, referring to
153
USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS
the President and Vice President of the United States, are
always capitahzed,
3. The names of races, languages, nationalities.
Caucasian, the French language, Chinese lacquer, Jap-
anese cherry blossoms
4. The names of cities, states, counties, countries, con-
tinents, bodies of water, mountains, constellations, and
planets (except the earth).
Tucson, Arizona, United States, North America, Missis-
sippi River, Rocky Mountains, Orion, Jupiter
5. Names of streets, parks, buildings, ships, trains, planes,
hotels, orchestras.
Hollywood Boulevard, Yellowstone Park, Equitable Build-
ing, the Ritz-Carlton, Philadelphia Symphony Orches-
tra, Super-Chief, S. S. American Scout
6. Points of the compass (North, South, East, West)
when they mean sections of the country or when they
precede the name of a street, but not when they mean
direction.
We moved to the South when I was a child.
When I saw the thief, he was running south toward the
river.
7. The names of political parties, religious groups and
their members, and particular organizations or groups.
Democrats, Catholics, Methodists, Bender and Company,
American Historical Society
8. Schools, colleges, clubs, departments of the govern-
ment.
Edison High School, Drake University, East High School
Glee Club, Departinent of Agriculture
154
USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS 2B1n^|
9. Events in history, historical periods, documents.
War Between the States, Middle Ages, Declaration of
Independence
10. Names of school classes when the word class ac-
companies them.
Junior class, juniors
11. Names of school subjects when they refer to languages
or specific classes.
English, Latin, Algebra II, algebra
21 h. Capitalize words referring to the Deity and sa-
cred books, but not the word god or goddess referring
to pagan gods.
Lord, Savior, Master, Bible, Koran, Jehovah, gods of the
Romans
Note: Pronouns used in reference to the Deity are capi-
talized.
We can be sure that He will care for us.
21 i. Capifaiize the first word in the salutation and the
complimentary close of a letter.
Dear Mr. Evans: Dear Sir: Sincerely yours,
Note: Any word used in place of the name of the person to
whom the letter is written is also capitalized, but not any
intervening words.
My dear Sir: My dear Sister:
21 j. Capitalize the abbreviations of titles and aca-
demic degrees.
A.B. Ph.D. Lieut.
155
21i
USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS
Note: Do not capitalize the following:
1. The name of a worker in a particular job.
Wrong: He is the Assistant Foreman of the bindery.
Right: He is the assistant foreman of the bindery.
2. The names of school subjects unless they are names of
languages or specific names of courses.
French, physics, mathematics, Journalism H
3. Any word but the first in the complimentary close of a
letter.
Wrong: Your loving Nephew,
Right: Your loving nephew,
4. The word dear when it follows my in the salutation
of a letter.
Right: My dear Dr. Harlow:
5. The names of chemical substances.
Right: We used some sulphur.
6. Terms referring to school, if the name of the school
is not mentioned.
Right: I go to the junior high school.
Right: I go to Edgar Allan Poe Junior High School.
7. Names of diseases.
Right: He has measles.
8. Nouns such as father, mother, aunt when they are
preceded by a possessive.
Right: My father is a fishing enthusiast.
9. The names of the seasons and earth, sun, and m,oon.
Right: To me, autumn means blue leaf-smoke.
Right: This is the best place to watch the rising moon or sun.
156
USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS
EXERCISE 1
The following sentences from students' themes contain
errors in capitalization. On your paper, rewrite each sen-
tence, using the correct capitalization.
1. At the head of the Student Government, we have a Student
President and a Student Vice President.
2. Plutarch discussed a Roman Statesman and then a Greek
Statesman and compared them.
3. We studied Sulphur and Hydrogen Sulphide in Chemistry.
4. The author lived for many years in a small cottage in
devonshire, England.
5. The President of our organization appointed a committee to
consult with the Executive Secretary.
6. I want to go to Business College for nine months and then
get a job.
7. We asked the advice of James Hannibal, but he referred us
to judge rhynhart.
8. I wish to apply for the position of Counselor at camp coxton.
9. Of all the good times that I had during the Spring vacation,
I enjoyed most the dance given by the North High glee club.
10. Marie Curie studied radium and won the nobel prize in
physics.
11. The lawyer has his office in the fidelity building at 10 east
lexington street.
12. I think that easter comes on april 8 this year,
13. They moved to the west and settled on an iowa farm.
14. Mother sent me to visit aunt sally, who lives in paducah,
kentucky.
15. Horace has always done well in physics and mathematics,
but he cannot master Spanish or french.
16. The chamber of commerce is going to publish a pamphlet
called "what to see in Cleveland."
17. We took a boat down the danube river from vienna to buda-
pest,
18. If you go west for two blocks, you will find the office of the
president of the company at 712 charles street.
19. The renaissance was a period of great development in art
and literature,
157
21
USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS
20. Have you ever read the declaration of independence or the
bible completely?
21. The seniors wanted to get an advertisement for their year
book from snedden, driscoll and company.
22. The gods of the romans were very human in many ways.
23. There are as many baptists in our town as there are catholics.
24. She was employed as chief file clerk, but she often has to
act as secretary to the President.
25. An eclipse of the sun occurs when the New Moon passes
directly between the Sun and the Earth.
EXERCISE 2
The following paragraphs contain errors in capitalization.
On your paper, write with a capital each word that requires
capitalization.
Samuel Johnson, one of the most colorful figures of the
eighteenth century, was born in lichfield on September 18, 1709.
His father, a bookseller, permitted the boy to read the books in
the shop so that samuel became very well-read, during this
period, many people were quite superstitious, they believed
that a sick person could be cured by the touch of the queen,
consequently, when samuel began to suffer from scrofula, he
was taken to queen anne, but the supposed power of a queen to
cure the disease failed, the afiliction remained with Johnson and
gave him trouble for years.
because the Johnsons did not have enough money to educate
their brilliant son, a neighbor sent the boy to pembroke college,
oxford, there Johnson began his writing career by translating some
latin verses, he later wrote taxation no tyranny, which argued
against the points taken by the american colonists in the revolu-
tionary war and showed Johnson as a firm supporter of the tory
party.
today we remember Johnson chiefly as the author of the first
dictionary, a book which showed great prejudice against the
scotch, and as the organizer of a famous group called the literary
club, members of the latter included the most important in-
tellectual people in london. david garrick, the actor, sir Joshua
revnolds, the artist, edmund burke, the statesman, oliver gold-
158
USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS
smith, the writer, were all members, when Johnson was finally
granted a pension by the king, he showed great kindness to a
number of poor people, whom he kept in his house on fleet street.
EXERCISE 3
Rewrite the following letter, using correct capitalization:
4315 Aldrich avenue
Minneapolis 9, Minnesota
October 31, 1960
Marston Brothers
52 east sixteenth street
Chicago, illinois
dear sirs:
please send the following books with bill:
1 copy preston, the growth of american ideals
1 copy anderson, new criticism
2 copies Jackson, big league baseball
very truly yours,
howard sachs
159
Punctuation
Punctuation is an aid to meaning; but if it is carelessly
used, it may distort meaning. The following sentence was
dictated by a businessman not long ago. The poor punctua-
tion used by his secretary distorted the meaning and caused
the firm some embarrassment. She wrote:
The house was bought on Monday for five thousand
dollars. We can put it in excellent condition and resell
it.
Her employer had expected her to write:
The house was bought on Monday. For five thousand
dollars we can put it in excellent condition and resell
it.
Sometimes careless omission of a comma can lead to
humorous results, as in the following sentence:
Wrong: When we cooked the woman in the next apartment
complained that we rattled pots and pans.
A first glance at the sentence might tell the reader that
we cooked the woman.
Right: When we cooked, the woman in the next apartment
complained that we rattled pots and pans.
Literary artists sometimes use punctuation in a very
free fashion; but in business and the professions, clarity is
important, and following a few simple rules is imperative.
160
DIAGNOSTIC TEST
How good is your punctuation? Do your sentences al-
ways convey to your reader exactly what you mean to say?
Try the diagnostic test to see what you need to study. Then
turn to the practice exercises that will help you with your
problems.
22. DIAGNOSTIC TEST ON COMMAS,
SEMICOLONS, COLONS, APOSTROPHES,
QUOTATION MARKS
On your paper, rewrite the following sentences, supply-
ing the necessary commas, semicolons, colons, apostrophes,
and quotation marks. If unnecessary marks have been used,
omit them in your correction. After each sentence write an
explanation of each correction that you have made in that
sentence. If a sentence needs no correction, do not rewrite it,
but write C beside its number.
1. If you desire any information about the city we suggest
that you call on our Personal Service Bureau.
2. When I came home after a years course in business my
father gave me Mr. Simmons old job.
3. Lawrence Biddison the Hopkins lacrosse star was chosen for
the Olympic team.
4. The streets were narrow and cobblestoned not paved as they
are today.
5. Our prices are always fair Mr. Hathaway said the manager
we try to please our customers,
6. How many ts are in your last name Davy?
7. The adding machine which the First National Bank has
just installed is a real timesaver.
8. The road outside Miami was long and straight only now and
then did we round a curve.
9. Yes the flowers were from the Aliens'.
10. A person applying for a job must be sure to wear in-
conspicuous clothes and to see that they are dean and
neatly pressed.
11. Shelley and Keats poetry occupies a high place in English
literature.
161
DIAGNOSTIC TEST
12. He is famous however chiefly for his autobiography which
people call the best of its kind.
13. In the days of horse-drawn cars fire engines and milk wagons
Sam Smith kept a bookshop on Center Street and we boys
often went there to talk about literature and politics.
14. We must show that we have grown intellectually that we
have increased our interests in current problems and that we
can be tolerant of others.
15. Our chef has been in our employ for nearly twenty years
and has an excellent staflF to assist him as a result we are
always sure that the meals will be good.
16. In modern times when one speaks of a fool he is usually
referring to a person who has not good sense but in medieval
days the fool was a professional jester in the kings court.
17. Pepys' tells in his diary of the bubonic plague that swept
England and of the great fire that destroyed a large part of
London.
18. My father does not approve of James driving so rapidly but
he does not want to forbid him to use the car.
19. The author of the book states no despot however benevolent
can rule the people as well as the people can rule themselves.
20. William Harlow who plans to build a large number of
prefabricated houses has begun his work in our city.
21. I took the boys to see the Orioles play against Rochester
said Uncle Jack and although these teams cannot compare in
playing ability with those of New York the game was very
enjoyable.
22. Mark Hallam born in Peoria Illinois May 22 1899 traveled to
India Persia Java and many other exotic places in order to
get information for his book.
23. Gross neglect of his work resulted in Mr. Blacks being dis-
charged said the manager.
24. Major John Perry son of Mr. and Mrs. Henry Perry of
Madison Wisconsin won three decorations for bravery in
combat.
25. The report submitted by Mr. Arnold showed that the south-
west corner of Fleet and Exeter Streets will be an excellent
location for our business consequently we shall begin build-
ing the new plant next month.
162
DIAGNOSTIC TEST
26. One thing is certain this is not the kind of bill which should
be rushed through Congress without serious thought.
27. A ladys purse containing five one-dollar bills a silver ring
and some change was found in the employees rest room.
28. The management aware of efforts among its employees to set
up a closed shop feebly endeavored to nullify them by
promoting an independent company union.
29. The Mutual Insurance Company which now occupies one
floor of the building will be obliged to move to make room for
government oflBces.
30. We planned to have the party at the Kings house but on the
day of the party Mrs. Kings mother was ill.
31. Most of the cars in the parking lot are new roadsters sedans
and convertibles although a few are old secondhand buses.
32. There are five kinds of phrases prepositional participial
gerund verb and infinitive.
33. There is a sale of ladies and misses dresses and mens suits
at Goodman and Canes new store.
34. The children were playing with some pretty little pink
seashells which they had found on the beach.
35. A business which is unwilling to change its practices to
suit new conditions will never be very profitable.
36. When Ellen heard the lecturer speak with great enthusiasm
about antiques she iTished out and bought a lovely Chip-
pendale sofa.
37. When we received Henton and Hawkins acceptance of our
plan for the reorganization of their business we began the
job by moving the credit managers oflBce to the third floor.
38. Hettie born in 1821 after the death of two otlier children
was a source of great happiness to her parents.
39. Harry Manners who was a war correspondent gives in his
short story The Voice Speaks a realistic picture of soldiers
in action.
40. The steps creaked as I walked on them and the air smelled
stale and musty.
41. The no-smoking provisions do not of course apply to the
outer lobbies of theaters to restaurants or to other places
designated with the approval of the Fire Department as
places where smoking is permitted.
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■ THE COMMA
42. When the quarantine on dogs was Hfted dozens of dogs
began scampering around renewing old acquaintances visit-
ing scenes of former revelry and showing how happy they
were to be free.
43. A person who wants to build a hot rod must watch several
things careful grinding of crankshaft bearings removal of
metal from the bearing surface and reshaping of bearings.
44. As we approached the house said Peter we heard a man
say 111 get him if you leave the job entirely to me and we
fled without waiting to hear more.
45. Here is a painter who draws his inspiration directly from
life and nature.
46. When the scientist sent the beam of his torch toward the
tree he saw suspended from a branch a curious little animal
which was hanging upside down.
47. It looked something like a Teddy bear but as it moved along
the branch of the tree the scientist could see a row of spines
projecting from its neck.
48. This animal the potto can double up with its head between
its legs so that it is in excellent position to use those spines
on any attacker that comes too close.
49. Because I love animals reading Sandersons Animal Treasure
was one of the most pleasant experiences that I have ever
had but I should not have enjoyed the rats snakes and frogs
that the scientist met everywhere.
50. Flying squirrels scaly anteaters and whistling skinks were
animals new to me until I read of a scientists trip to the
jungle but I soon became acquainted with them and learned
much about their habits.
23. THE COMMA
23a. Use a comma before the coordinating conjunction
that joins two independent clauses.
The coordinating conjunctions are and, but, for, or, nor. A
compound sentence has at least two independent clauses,
which are usually joined by a coordinating conjunction. To
determine whether a sentence is compound, read what
comes before the coordinating conjunction and see if the
164
THE COMMA
thought is complete standing alone; then read what follows
the conjunction and see if it is complete. If there are two
complete thoughts, place a comma before the conjunction.
If there are not two complete thoughts, no comma is needed.
There was an elevator for the use of visitors, but we
decided to walk up the steps. (Two complete thoughts)
Norris darted around the corner and halted abruptly. ( No
comma is needed because the words following and
are not complete in themselves; they are part of the
compound predicate used with the subject, Norris. )
Note:
1. If the clauses are short, the comma may be omitted.
This statement, however, immediately brings up the question
"How short is short?" If the independent clauses consist of
only subject and verb, then they are obviously short, and the
comma may be omitted. Examples: John studied and Mary
played. I laughed and I cried. Sometimes lack of punctuation
between short clauses may cause momentary misreading. In
reading the sentence that follows, your first thought may be
that the boys ate the hired man.
The boys ate bacon and the hired man ate sausage.
2. If the clauses are long and contain other commas, a
semicolon is used before the conjunction. (See Section
24c.)
When he arrived at college, he was invited to join two
different fraternities; and it was only after much discus-
sion with his father, his brother, and his friends that he was
able to decide which one to join.
EXERCISE 1
Most of the following sentences from student themes
and letters contain errors in the punctuation of compound
sentences. On your paper, write the number of each sen-
tence. Beside it, write the word after which a comma should
be used and the comma. If no comma needs to be added to
165
THE COMMA
a sentence, write C beside the sentence number. As an
example, the correction for the first sentence is given below:
1. late,
1. Often the mother had to work late and the child was left
to take care of himself.
2. The commercials are very elaborate and sometimes take
three minutes of a fifteen-minute program.
3. Almost everybody has his pet superstition but some people
take the matter entirely too seriously.
4. A senator from Mississippi and one from Georgia were dis-
cussing the poll tax.
5. Most of the critics received the book very coldly but the
public loved it.
6. The new art museum is a beautiful structure and some of the
paintings are exquisite.
7. His trip on the ocean was pleasing to Joe for he rested most
of the time.
8. Suddenly dark clouds appeared on the horizon and the sea
became rough and wild.
9. We wish to thank you for this opportunity to be of service
and to assure you of our desire to please you.
10. We tried to get in to see Toscanini conduct but we didn't
have the strength to fight through the mob.
11. His clothes were old and ragged but his spirit was as haughty
as ever.
12. We should like to welcome you to Indianapolis and to ex-
press a sincere hope that you will enjoy your residence here.
13. We could drive into town in the evening and see a show at
one of the small-town movie houses.
14. It's been a long time since we've seen each other and you've
probably forgotten all about me.
15. The shouts of the people grew louder and louder for the
two wrestlers had entered the ring.
16. The living room is comfortably proportioned and has a large
fireplace at one end.
17. A banquet has been arranged for the evening and many
other feasts and festivities will be held during the three-day
holiday,
166
THE COMMA
18. I do hope that you haven't made any plans for the summer
and will arrange to spend July with us.
19. The family intends to drive to my aunt's summer lodge in
Oakland for a few weeks and we'd love to have you join us.
20. Last summer I played tennis almost every day and found
that I improved quite a bit.
21. I was assigned the task of examining the methods and
procedures used by other companies and also the job of
adapting these findings to our use.
22. One thousand dollars has already been paid and the balance
of seventeen thousand will be paid within sixty days.
23. We are able to obtain adequate chemical supplies but we
cannot get enough equipment of other types.
24. She was proud of her beauty and spent much time keeping
herself attractive.
25. The sun had now vanished completely and the silver moon
peeped through a break in the deep blue clouds.
EXERCISE 2
Follow the directions in Exercise 1.
L. We are holding the freezing units for you and should
appreciate your letting us know when you would like to
have them delivered.
I. It was interesting to see the Indian dances but I was dis-
appointed to find the costumes of the witch doctors were
not like those in the pictures.
J. Streetcars clanged as they traveled to and fro on their daily
trips and grass grew between the stones on the street.
t. The story has been told far and wide and will forever be a
legend in these mountains.
). The Trinity River broke through the levees in several places
and many people were forced out of their homes.
). Lucy had many music teachers but scales and rhythm simply
would not sink into her head.
^ Calls for service received before 1:00 p.m. were acted upon
the same day and those received after 1:00 p.m. were
scheduled for the next day.
167
THE COMMA
8. I invited him for lunch and we discussed the present situa-
tion in the stainless steel industry.
9. The Metal Products Company has a supply of stainless steel
and has been trying to persuade Mr. Paulson to cancel his
order with us and buy from it.
10. Some of the homes were on magnificent estates but most of
them were the simple houses of workingmen.
11. The relations between labor and management in the com-
pany grew steadily worse and an open clash was prevented
only by the intervention of the Governor.
12. The early evening was the best time to walk to the top of
the hill and look at the little valley below.
13. Practically every firm states that its machinery costs have
been reduced by 25 percent and some claim a reduction of
35 percent.
14. I have not had any experience in the business of selling but
I will give the job my best effort and feel certain that I can
learn it quickly.
15. He subscribes liberally to the Associated Charities and no
good object or worthy enterprise fails to receive his support.
16. He made many speeches from the truck and was so well
received everywhere that his political party rewarded him
with a good job.
17. Virtually all cottages here are reported rented for the
summer and hotel reservations are said to have hit an all-
time high.
18. We have usually gone to Carmel for the summer but this
year we have taken a cottage at Santa Barbara and hope that
you will join us for July.
19. Surf bathing and all kinds of water sports are oflFered and the
resort has a background of pine forests and picturesque bays.
20. The cause of a united Ireland is one which arouses flaming
passions and causes violent arguments.
23b. Use a comma to separate an introductory phrase
or dependent clause from an independent clause.
The fact that the element is introductory means that it
precedes the independent clause. Often it is at the very
168
THE COMMA
beginning of the sentence. The introductory element may be
a clause, a phrase, or, occasionally, merely a word. Failure
to punctuate it will interfere with the clearness of the
sentence. If the introductory element is a clause, it will
probably begin with a subordinating conjunction — for ex-
ample, if, as, since, because, although, while, or when.
When she finished high school, she determined to be
an artist.
If no dormitory rooms are available, I'll inquire about
rooms oflF the campus.
Although summer is months away, the girls have started
to make plans for their vacation.
If a sentence begins with a phrase containing a participle
or an infinitive and used as an adjective or an adverb, a
comma should follow the phrase.
Acting on the advice of Mr. Crawford, we bought some
stock in the company. (Participial phrase used as ad-
jective)
To win the game, you must watch each card that is
played. (Infinitive phrase used as adverb)
A long prepositional phrase is usually followed by a
comma if it begins the sentence. Even a short prepositional
phrase must be followed by a comma if the meaning would
otherwise be confused.
Common prepositions are to, for, from, with, between, in,
over, under, by, across, after.
In a little country store nearby, we bought some bread
and cheese. (Prepositional phrase)
After a long walk in the brisk air, we were glad to rest
before the fire. (Prepositional phrase, in which the
object of the preposition is modified by a second
phrase)
Caution:
1. Sometimes in a compound-complex sentence the in-
169
THE COMMA
troductory phrase or clause comes in the middle of the
sentence. In the sentence which follows, the clause before
anyone could get it is considered introductory because it
precedes the independent clause he had reached second
hose. Therefore, a comma is used after it.
Bill Tucker hit a ball into the hole between short stop
and third base; and before anyone could get it, he had
reached second base.
2. A gerund or infinitive phrase used as the subject of a
sentence is not separated from the rest of the sentence by a
comma.
Planting a garden requires skill and care.
To spend a month at the seashore was her chief desire.
EXERCISE 3
Most of these sentences contain errors in the use of the
comma after an introductory phrase or dependent clause.
On your paper, write the number of each of the sentences.
Beside it write the word after which a comma should be
placed and the comma. If no comma needs to be added to a
sentence, write C beside the sentence number. As an
example, the correction for the first sentence is given below:
1. yesterday,
1. While walking home from school yesterday she lost her
physics book.
2. Should you desire an interview I can be reached at home.
3. Because you are one of our best customers we want you to
have advance information about the sale.
4. If you expect to attend the convention please mail the en-
closed card for your reservation.
5. Through the purchase of a retirement policy, you can assure
yourself of security in your old age.
6. If you purchase a cottage at Shelby Cove you will own
property in an exclusive summer colony.
170
THE COMMA
7. During the years of the German occupation Athens suffered
indescribably.
8. As she was coming back from the well with a pail of cool
water she noticed a strange movement of the bushes.
9. Thinking that the figure was a ghost we ran as fast as our
legs could carry us.
10. To make a good model airplane you must follow the direc-
tions exactly.
11. Although I have not had any training as a counselor I have
gone to camp for many years and know what a counselor
should do.
12. To run a mile a person must first of all be in good physical
condition.
13. In order for the laboratory to function properly we need
two additional technicians.
14. Under his expert direction the symphony orchestra grew
to be one of the most famous in the world.
15. During the past month 6 percent of the work hours was
required for machinery repairs.
16. Because he had no parental guidance or home life he began
to run wild.
17. Complying with your request of March 10 we are mailing
you a membership application blank.
18. After an examination of our easy payment plan you will be
sure to want a house in Shelby Cove.
19. If you come to Portland may we have the pleasure of reserv-
ing a room for you?
20. Since the capacity of our hotel is limited to one thousand
guests you must place your reservation now.
21. Sucking the cool juice of the oranges into their dry throats,
the boys discussed the ways of getting home that evening.
22. In addition to the attractive features already outlined Shelby
Cove is a paradise for children.
23. Although I have had little experience I can assure you that
I am very much interested in the work.
24. Since the establishment of the company in 1921 there have
been several reorganizations.
25. As I threw open my window I could see a mass of flames
rising from the building across the street.
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THE COMMA
EXERCISE 4
Follow the directions in Exercise 3.
1. As I look back on the five years which I spent as a clerk in a
drugstore I see that I learned a great deal.
2. For some reason that we have not determined Friday seems
to be our busiest day.
3. To supply a city like this large power plants are needed.
4. Noticing that it was becoming very dark and thinking that
our parents would be worried, we began to gather our bats
and balls in order to leave.
5. Having gone without ice cream and candy for two whole
months Theresa had finally saved enough money to buy the
gloves that she wanted.
6. If you will have your secretary type your name on the en-
closed card and mail it to me I will see that you receive one
of the first copies.
7. I assured him that as soon as we receive our shipment of
24-gauge steel we will fill his order for 100 water coolers.
8. We guarantee that if you do not find the materials satis-
factory you may return them at our expense.
9. We have notified our customers that since the materials are
not available we shall be unable to fill their orders until May
10.
10, As the zoologist and his group moved through the jungle,
the bushes suddenly parted; and there, in front of the
astonished scientists, stood a huge baboon.
23c. Use commas to separate words, phrases, or
clauses in a series.
A series consists of three or more words, phrases, or
clauses in the same construction.
Nouns: The crowd consisted of men, women, and
children.
Verbs: Mr. Brewster reads, writes, and speaks
French like a native.
Adverbial phrases: He ran down the steps, across the street, and
into the park.
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THE COMMA
Noun clauses: They asked me how I had arrived in Siam,
what I intended to do there, and when I
should return to the United States.
Some writers omit the commas before and in a series; but
because in some sentences this omission may cause mis-
understanding, it is better to use the comma before and.
Caution: Do not place a comma before the first member of
a series or after the last member.
Wrong: We put, apples, peaches, and pears, into the basket.
Right: We put apples, peaches, and pears into the basket,
23d. Use commas to separate two or more adjectives
when they are coordinate modifiers of the same noun.
Tall, slender, graceful girls modeled the clothes.
If the last adjective modifies the noun and the one pre-
ceding it modifies the combined idea, the adjectives are not
coordinate and no comma is used.
At the ticket window stood a man carrying a large, shabby
leather suitcase.
In this sentence leather modifies suitcase. Large and
shabby are coordinates with each other, but not with leather;
they describe the leather suitcase.
It is sometimes difficult to determine whether or not the
adjectives are coordinate. One way of testing is to insert
the conjunction and between the adjectives; if the and fits
naturally, use a comma when it is omitted. In the sentence
above, we can say, "The leather suitcase was large and
shabby," but "The suitcase was large, shabby, and leather"
does not sound natural. We therefore use a comma between
large and shabby but not between shabby and leather.
Caution: If a word modifies the following adjective rather
than the noun, do not separate the two words by a comma.
Yesterday I bought a combed cotton pullover.
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THE COMMA
Here the word combed modifies cotton, not pullover.
Hence we do not have two adjectives modifying the noun.
EXERCISE 5
These sentences contain errors in the punctuation of a
series. On your paper, write the number of each of the
sentences and beside it write the word or words after which
a comma should be placed. Include the comma. If a sentence
is correct, place a C beside the number. As an example, the
correction for the first sentence is given below.
1. students, teachers,
1. The members of the society were students teachers and
clerks.
2. We are sure that there are many things which you would
like to purchase for yourself your family or your home.
3. A short fat girl came into the room.
4. In my history classes I have learned about my country its
government and its people.
5. The tight black silk cap had gay shiny buttons sewed around
the crown.
6. The candidate was elected on a platform of slum clearance
tax reform and economy in government.
7. At the auction sale she bought a beautiful inlaid rosewood
table an antique highboy and a wrought-iron lantern.
8. The courses in science taught us to question to reason and to
experiment.
9. The pale yellow porch chairs had dark green cushions.
10. He mixed sodas delivered prescriptions and made himself
generally useful in the store.
EXERCISE 6
Follow the directions in Exercise 5.
1. The book tells of her romances her many famous friends on
and off the stage and her war adventures.
2. The girl uttered a piercing scream dropped her pail of water
and ran for the house.
174
THE COMMA
3. Early in the morning we milk the cows churn the butter and
pick berries or peaches and string beans.
4. It was fun to make new friends to take part in the various
activities of the school and to join a few clubs.
5. I believe that the school has taught me to think clearly to
converse intelligently and to appreciate beauty.
6. Franklin pioneered in the study of the common cold the
conduction of heat by various substances and the prediction
of the weather.
7. The club has made arrangements to have on display the
newest boat models engine equipment and safety devices.
8. The strike shut off the country's power closed its mills and
stopped the wheels of industry.
9. Within a few years, the J. M. Salten Company was doing
a million-dollar business had purchased the plants of two
competitors and was planning to establish a branch office
in Pittsburgh.
10. The children came to the vacant lot on warm spring after-
noons and played long intense games of dodge ball speed
ball or volley ball,
EXERCISE 7
Follow the directions in Exercise 5.
1. The attic was hung with clusters of bats the wooden
structure was rotten and the whole effect was gloomy.
2. They needed to cut down the weeds erect new fences and
repair the roof in order to make the place habitable.
3. The girl wore a fleecy, dull green coat and hat brown shoes
with high narrow heels a beige silk muffler and beige gloves.
4. Standardization of the size of the paper will save space in
the main store room in individual office storage cabinets and
in file cabinets.
5. The clerk is trained to write legibly to show the necessary
information in the proper columns and to add and extend the
amount of the sale accurately.
6. Members of the Home Service Corps of the Red Cross
receive patients handle case correspondence and assist the
professional staff in nontechnical duties.
175
THE COMMA
7. According to some statistics, individuals today spend an
average of one hour a week at the motion pictures twenty-five
hours Hstening to the radio or watching television and five
hours reading.
8. The book profits by the author's ability to visualize the
eighteenth-century scene to describe it convincingly and to
bring to life the men who made our history.
9. Scientists all over the world will perfect new weapons im-
prove present weapons and make ready the instruments of
destruction that man will turn against himself.
10. The investigation is to cover the kinds of samples analyzed
by each laboratory the methods used in analyzing the
samples and new methods which may save time and money.
EXERCISE 8
This exercise reviews the use of capital letters and the use
of the comma in a series, after an introductory element, and
before the coordinating conjunction in a compound sen-
tence. On your paper, write this paragraph, placing commas
and capital letters where they should be. Number each
correction that you make. At the end of the paragraph list
the numbers and beside each number write the reason for
the correction.
Last Saturday the northern high school played polytechnic
a championship game in football, when we arrived at the ben ton
stadium the stands were filled with girls waving pennants boys
shouting for their team and gay parents and teachers, swinging
along in perfect time our band entered the field marched once
around and then took seats in the reserved section, for the first
half we played well, then skippy broke his ankle and our chances
of winning declined, when they saw that skippy was out of the
game the boys seemed to lose heart, the quarterback miscalled
a signal the right tackle pulled out of the line at the wrong time
and the ball carrier fumbled as he was tackled, then the opposing
team recovered the fumble and scored on the next play. I still
hoped but my hopes were in vain, tlie game ended with a score
of 13-7 in favor of poly.
176
THE COMMA
EXERCISE 9
Follow the directions in Exercise 8.
A few summers ago judith went with her mother and father
on a cruise to the west indies, it was a beautiful trip. mrs. nolte
lay lazily in a deck chair and read most of the time but judith and
her father were active, they played deck tennis and shufHeboard
sat on the top deck to get a good sun tan and danced at night,
when the boat stopped for a day at port of Spain in trinidad the
passengers had an opportunity to see a new kind of life, because
her father had a business acquaintance in this town judith was
able to see the inside of a charming tropical home, it was built
around a patio where palm and banana trees surrounded a
fountain, when judith came home she talked of nothing but
trinidad. I was so enthusiastic that I planned to visit the west
indies myself.
23e. Use commas to separate parenthetical words,
phrases, or clauses from the rest of the sentence.
A parenthetical expression interrupts a thought and is not
necessary to the meaning of the sentence. Although it often
makes the sentence smoother or adds a bit of additional in-
formation, the thought is complete without it. Some ex-
pressions frequently used in a parenthetical sense are
however, for instance, of course, as we said, for example, to
tell the truth. If these expressions or any others are used
parenthetically, they should have a comma before them and
a comma after them.
The task, it is true, is not a diflBcult one.
The words it is true interrupt the thought the task is not
a difficult one. The sentence is complete without this ex-
pression. Hence the expression is separated from the rest
of the sentence by commas.
The parenthetical expression may be a rather long clause
or phrase. Such expressions frequently give interesting in-
177
•^P THE COMMA
formation. If, however, they interrupt the main thought,
they are considered parenthetical.
Kenneth, evidently taking his cue from his brother,
answered aflRrmatively.
Many professional men, even if they have plenty of time,
w^ill have nothing to do with politics.
Caution: The conjunctive adverbs however, moreover,
nevertheless, consequently, therefore, thus, then, so, yet,
otherwise are sometimes used as parenthetical expressions.
But if one of these conjunctive adverbs joins two inde-
pendent clauses, it must be preceded by a semicolon.
Jane, however, stayed at home. (Parenthetical)
John went to school; however, Jane stayed at home. (Two
independent clauses)
23f. Use commas to separate from the rest of a sen-
tence nouns or pronouns used in direct address.
Mr. Henderson, may I see you for a moment?
I asked you, Ronald, not to come here today.
23g. The words yes and no are usually followed by a
comma when used at the beginning of a sentence.
Yes, I have studied French.
No, nobody was there.
EXERCISE 10
The following sentences involve errors in the uses of the
comma shown in Section 23d-f. On a piece of paper, write
the number of each of the sentences, and beside it write each
word after which a comma should be used, with the comma.
As an example, the correction is given for the first sentence:
1. believe. Doctor,
1. I cannot believe Doctor that the disease is so serious.
2. Have you by any chance a suggestion as to our lodgings?
178
THE COMMA I
3. Yes it will seem strange I suppose to go to the beach and
not come to the old cottage.
4. Your delivery promise you may recall was for the first week
in April.
5. Billy after realizing what had happened gave a long wail
and began to sob bitterly,
6. King Saul fearing the loss of his throne drove David from
the palace.
7. No Helene I don't need money, but will you do something
for me?
8. Our present Governor will I am sure be reelected by a large
majority.
9. New York as we all know has developed many successful
writers.
10. Come here Rex and do your tricks.
EXERCISE 11
Follow the directions in Exercise 10.
1. Don't make so much noise Herbert.
2. These price increases effective immediately apply to mod-
erate-priced shoes.
3. His whole life in fact might have been changed if he had
accepted the job.
4. My little sister, bravely concealing her disappointment,
relinquished her seat to Aunt Sarah.
5. Boys and girls you will have an unusual opportunity this
year.
6. At present for example we have only three thousand of the
five thousand test tubes which we need.
7. Jenny glad of a chance to make the trip tried hard not to
think of the unpleasant company that she would have.
8. Some of the evidence it is said by the defense counsel con-
cerns military secrets and cannot be presented at this time.
9. The house designed I believe by Carter and Wells is a
French Provincial cottage with a charming outdoor terrace.
10. The new airport has three runways two of which are 3,000
feet long and a large, impressive administration building.
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THE COMMA
EXERCISE 12 _^
Follow the directions in Exercise 10.
1. Our research program begun last year in the interest of im-
proved passenger service has now been completed.
2. Pepys though not entirely an egoist never lost interest in
himself.
3. Many perhaps the majority of the people traveling to
Europe this summer will go by air.
4. One of the greatest crowds in the history of American golf
estimated to be from sixteen to twenty thousand fans saw the
United States Open Championship yesterday.
5. Four good-looking American girls hailed by everybody as
the best-balanced U.S. team ever sent to England won the
Wightman Cup matches yesterday.
6. Some travel organizations proceeding on the premise that
there will be too many travelers to share existing accommoda-
tions have planned all-expense tours.
7. The unsuccessful actors unwilling to admit defeat by ac-
cepting other employment sank into abject and hopeless
poverty.
8. The river swollen by thirty hours of continuous rain swept
over its banks and flooded the town.
9. The blunt, straight-speaking chairman, opening a discussion
of the committee's plans for the year, said that nothing
would be accomplished unless each member did his share.
10. The first two years of high school gave me in addition to
increased factual knowledge an appreciation of the value
of an education.
23h. Use commas to separate non restrictive clauses
and phrases from the remainder of the sentence.
Clauses and phrases are restrictive when they limit the
meaning of the word they modify by identifying the
particular one that is meant. They answer the question
"which?" or "what kind?"
John Mackay, who is our postman, is a former aviator.
The man who is our postman is a former aviator.
180
THE COMMA
I like books about people who have had eventful lives.
In the first of these sentences, who is our postman merely
provides additional information about John Mackay; he
is already identified by name. In the second sentence, the
clause identifies the man we are talking about. It answers
the question "which man?" In the third sentence, the clause
answers the question "what kind of people?"
The context sometimes determines whether a clause or
phrase is restrictive or nonrestrictive.
Ellen and Sarah entertained us while Louise and Mary
were busy in the kitchen. After lunch the girls who had
prepared the meal rested, and the others washed the
dishes.
Ellen and Sarah drove to Crystal Lake with Jim and Alan
for a picnic. After lunch the girls, who had prepared
the meal, rested while the boys washed the dishes.
In the first pair of sentences, who had prepared the meal
teUs which of the girls rested; it is therefore restrictive. In
the second pair, there can be no mistake about which girls
are meant. The clause simply gives additional information.
Sometimes only the writer of a sentence can tell whether
a modifier is restrictive or nonrestrictive. If he punctuates
such a sentence incorrectly, he will mislead the reader.
Our camera club has a new projector. The members who
worked during the summer paid for it out of their
earnings.
The omission of commas before and after the clause who
worked during the summer indicates to the reader that the
clause is restrictive — that is, that it tells which of the
members paid for the projector. But the writer meant to say
that aU of the members had contributed and that all had
worked during the summer. Commas before and after the
clause would have made this meaning clear.
If you are uncertain whether a modifier is restrictive or
181
THE COMMA
nonrestrictive, try reading the sentence without it. If the
sentence still expresses the meaning you had in mind, the
modifier is nonrestrictive and should be set off by commas;
if the sentence now means something different, the modifier
is restrictive and no commas should be used. Study these
sentences:
With modifier: Tourists, who can usually be recognized by
their cameras, seem to outnumber the native
population.
Without modifier: Tourists seem to outnumber the native popu-
lation.
With modifier: Tourists who fail to declare dutiable goods
must, if detected, pay the duty plus a penalty.
Without modifier: Tourists must, if detected, pay the duty plus
a penalty.
With modifier: All men who have family responsibilities
should carry life insurance.
Without modifier: All men should carry life insurance.
The first sentence means exactly the same with or without
the modifying clause; the clause is therefore nonrestrictive.
The next is pure nonsense when the clause is omitted. The
last makes sense without the clause, but not the same kind of
sense; the meaning is greatly changed by the omission. In
these two sentences, therefore, the clauses are restrictive.
EXERCISE 13
Some of the following sentences require correction by
the addition of commas, usually to punctuate nonrestrictive
expressions. Other uses of the comma are also required.
Some of the sentences are correctly punctuated. On your
paper rewrite any incorrect sentence, adding the necessary
commas. If a sentence is correct, write C beside the number;
do not rewrite a correct sentence.
1. The fifteen dollars that I had so carefully saved was spent in
one evening on a date with Sandra.
182
THE COMMA
2. Grandfather who was a huckster wanted to get a stall in the
market.
3. Her knees which were normally strong and firm were now
weak and shaky.
4. I tried to find a vacation spot which v/ould give me some-
thing different from the usual thing.
5. Mrs. Seaman's husband who is in the printing business has
promised to print the tickets free of charge.
6. It was suggested by Mrs. Bruce that a committee be ap-
pointed to call on members who are ill.
7. Our team which has lost four first-string men through in-
juries can hardly expect to win.
8. Basketball players who are more than six feet tall have a
real advantage over their shorter teammates.
9. I have been reading about the labor problem which was until
recently a complete blank to me.
10. Parents who do not provide a home where there is love
affection and guidance are to blame if their children become
delinquents.
11. My favorite in the play was Alexander Harding who played
the role of the prince's tutor.
12. The second and third floors which were formerly showrooms
are now used as storage space.
13. The other blouse of similar style that I have to offer can
be seen on page 372 of our catalogue.
14. The school which I attended was not far from our new
house but the mountain road was poorly constructed.
15. He became friendly with the Governor who offered to help
him start his business.
16. The suit which you ordered Mr. Scott has been shipped by
express.
17. One of the counselors whom you employed last year has told
me of a vacancy in your office.
18. When I heard the price which I think is outrageous I
decided not to buy the house.
19. Everybody who goes to Exeter thinks it is one of the finest
schools in the country.
20. Taking her "over-month" bag Grandma went to Lynchburg
to see her favorite cousins who have a small farm.
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THE COMMA
21. Our plan was to visit the site of the bridge which was being
constructed about four miles from our home.
22. After two long weeks she found herself walking up the
gangplank of the ship which was to take her to America.
23. Although I have learned many things which will help me I
value my English training above all others.
24. During this interview which was very interesting I learned
many things about the business the city and the county.
25. My aunt who was living in Denver at the time wrote to us of
an amazing experience which she had had.
EXERCISE 14
Follow the directions in Exercise 13.
1. The meeting was called to order by Mrs. Ford who called
on the chairman of the banquet committee for her report.
2. My father's hunting lodge which is set high on a mountain
overlooking a lake is as quaint as a picture in a book.
3. The bully was a strong husky fellow of seventeen who spent
his time beating the small boys.
4. We knew Roger as a little boy who used to follow other
boys around when they wanted to be rid of him.
5. The success of the organization under my leadership made
me impatient with my successor who was a slow easygoing
boy.
6. All of a sudden without any warning in advance the truck
which we had been following went out of control and turned
over completely.
7. The machine will cut office expenses and give employees who
operate it an easier day,
8. When Joseph had finished the article which he read with
great interest he stood up folded the magazine and began
to lecture us.
9. The second flood in that area within a week followed a heavy
downpour of rain which felled telephone wires sent trees
crashing upon parked automobiles and backed up sewers.
10. Mr. Reever who called on me yesterday had some interesting
samples but he was unable to get me any of the fine English
wool that I wanted.
184
THE COMMA
23i. Use commas to separate appositives from the rest
of the sentence.
An appositive is a substantive (noun or pronoun) joined
to another substantive that means the same thing.
Jones, an Englishman, was an excellent sailor.
Robert Frost, the author of "Birches," is one of the finest
American poets. (Jones and Englishman are the same;
Robert Frost and author of "Birches" are the same.)
A comma or two commas should be used to separate the
appositive from the rest of the sentence. If the appositive
is at the end of the sentence, it is preceded by a comma
and followed by a period.
Caution:
1. An appositive which is part of a name is not separated
by commas.
Richard the Lion-Hearted was an English king.
2. Sometimes an appositive is restrictive; that is, it
identifies or Hmits the meaning of the word with which it is
in apposition. If the appositive answers the question
"which?" it is restrictive and should not be separated by
commas. (See Section 23h. )
The phrase to my house is adverbial.
My brother Sam is sick.
In the first sentence, to my house tells which phrase the
writer means. It is therefore restrictive and requires no
commas.
The second sentence is a special case. Names in apposition
with words like brother, sister, friend are now written
without commas. Even if one has only one brother or sister
or friend, so that the appositive does not tell which, the
name is considered so closely related to the preceding noun
that no commas are needed.
185
THE COMMA
EXERCISE 15
On your paper, write the following sentences, placing
commas where they are needed to punctuate an appositive,
a series, a term of address, a parenthetical expression, or an
introductory dependent clause.
1. Bob Coleman the coach at Southern High expects his team
to win the cup this year.
2. Good Night, Sweet Prince is the biography of John Barry-
more a well-known much-admired actor.
3. City and Polytechnic our two keenest rivals have lost
several of their outstanding players.
4. Mr. Andrews a man of long experience in selling tools will
tell you the advantage of buying our products.
5. He sold the business to J. P. David Company an old reliable
firm.
6. Dan did you know that the author of the book Dr.
Baumgarten was once a teacher?
7. One of the persons whom she met was Celeste Armiger an
author of considerable reputation.
8. Dr. Nils Peterson director of the hospital is greatly worried
about the increased expenses.
9. He opened the icebox and saw something that caught his
fancy immediately a dish of macaroni and cheese.
10. When I reached the waiting room I was greeted by Mrs.
Sheldon the director of the volunteer workers.
EXERCISE 16
Follow the directions in Exercise 15.
1. The first wrestler a mere youth looks small and insignificant
beside the other a rugged large heavy-set man.
2. The speech marked a historic moment the turning of the tide.
3. She was happy because she was leaving Russia and going
to America the land of opportunity.
4. Joan's father an important businessman worked for one of
the large expensive department stores.
5. Student government gave me a chance to learn public
speaking an art which will be valuable to me in later life.
186
THE COMMA
6. When Joanne married Bob a tall handsome marine she
did not expect to settle down on a farm.
7. Last week at our Spanish club two guests one from Uruguay
and one from Cuba spoke to us in Spanish.
8. In two games yesterday the sixth and seventh of the season
Northern High the champion of last year was badly defeated.
9. When he visited The Poplars a neighboring farm he found
the people greatly disturbed by news of a robbery.
10. Elizabeth became interested in Mr. Darcy an arrogant
haughty and conceited person.
EXERCISE 17
Follow the directions in Exercise 15.
1. We landed first on the southern end of the island that part
where most of the fighting took place.
2. Winston Churchill British wartime Prime Minister and later
leader of the Conservative opposition rebuked the Labor
Government for its food policy.
3. In your course Dr. Davis I have learned to distinguish be-
tween fact and opinion.
4. Pope the man is far different from Pope the poet.
5. Some scientists have been working on an interesting new
product a DDT wallpaper which will kill moths flies and
mosquitoes.
6. Henry Bronson one of the most wealthy farmers in the
county was married to a kind-hearted pert engaging woman
of thirty.
7. Godfrey was often led into doing foolish things that would
never have occurred to him had it not been for Dunstan his
thoroughly dishonest brother.
8. I have a reasonably good command of two important lan-
guages Latin and Spanish about which I had no knowledge
before I entered high school.
9. Doing two term papers one on labor problems and the other
on the development of American railroads has given me
a fine opportunity to develop a technique for handling
reference materials skill in using the library and a method of
organizing facts.
187
23i-k
THE COMMA
10. Surrounded by three hundred distinguished guests the
regally robed monarch ascended the throne in a ceremony
which lasted fourteen minutes the climax of one of the most
important days in the history of the country.
23j. Use commas before and after the name of a state
or country when it follows the name of a city, and be-
fore and after the year when it follows the month or
the month and day.
John left on July 8, 1959, to go to Peoria, Illinois.
23k. Use commas before and after the abbreviations
Jr. and Sr. and abbreviations of academic degrees.
James Norman, Ph.D., and Frank Hale, M.D., are the
authors of the book.
George Madison, Jr., is the owner of the building.
EXERCISE 18
On your paper, write the following sentences, placing
commas where they are needed. Most of the commas will
be those called for in Section 23i-j, but some commas will
be needed for other uses.
1. On February 12 1809 Abraham Lincoln was born in a log
cabin in Hardin County Kentucky.
2. Mr. Saunders testified that on May 9 1943 he was in Athens
Ohio on business.
3. Good Friday April 10 1868 was the birth date of a great
actor George Arliss.
4. The writer studied at the Sorbonne Paris from September
10 1933 to May 30 1934.
5. On July 20 1942 the first group of women to join the United
States Army showed up at Des Moines Iowa.
6. At the age of seven my father spent his first vacation away
from home in Chestertown Maryland where he had relatives.
7. Simon Bolivar the great South American patriot was a native
of Caracas Venezuela.
8. Florence Nightingale famous for her works in nursing and
ISS
THE COMMA
in hospital reform was born in Florence Italy and took her
name from that town.
9. It was in April 1775 that the American Revolution began.
10. Your advertisement in the Denver Post of Thursday March
12 interested me.
11. On April 12 1865 Abraham Lincoln was shot by John
Wilkes Booth a Shakespearean actor.
12. One night fifteen years ago in Windsor Ontario Martin
Banner a steelworker bade his wife good-by and went to a
lodge meeting. He was never seen again.
13. Elizabeth Benson one of the pioneers in the movement to
educate women visited Hastings Nebraska on May 10 1908.
14. Henry started to school with his cousin Pauline Henderson
who lived next door to him on Linwood Boulevard Kansas
City.
15. On January 9 1834 in Boston Massachusetts a book by John
Carrington was published.
231. Use a comma to separate contrasted coordinate
elements.
My name is John, not Henry,
He struck forcefully, but wildly.
23m. Use a comma after the salutation and compli-
mentary close in a friendly letter.
Dear Harold,
Sincerely yours.
Note: The colon is generally used after the salutation in
a business letter and may also be used after the salutation
in a friendly letter.
23n. Use a comma before a direct quotation that is
introduced by a verb such as said, exclaimed, thought.
{See Sections 25b and 27a.)
Morgan said proudly, "I am a Texan."
I£ the sentence does not end with the quotation, a comma
189
^""■J^ THE COMMA
is required before the closing quotation marks unless the
quotation ends with a question mark or an exclamation
point or the structure of the sentence itself calls for some
other mark of punctuation. ( See Section 27f . )
The stranger said, "This is the end of our trail," and dis-
mounted.
"Did you hear me?" he asked.
He wrote, "I shall expect you at five o'clock"; but what-
ever he might expect, I had no intention of going.
23o. Use a comma or commas to separate an absolute
expression from the rest of a sentence.
The tide having risen, Ferris floated the sailboat.
On the island, the fog having lifted, he saw the lighthouse.
23p. Use a comma before a final phrase or clause
which introduces a new idea.
I am grateful for everything you have done for me,
especially for your kindness during my illness.
EXERCISE 19
On your paper, rewrite the following paragraph, placing
commas where they are needed. Number each comma in
sequence. At the end of the paragraph, list the numbers
and beside each number write the reason for the use of the
comma indicated by that number.
Not long ago some of our newspapers reported the develop-
ment of jet-propelled automobiles and we all thought of the great
development that has taken place since the first horseless carriage.
Although it seems impossible now to think of a life without cars
our grandparents remember those carriage days very well.
Grandpa climbed into his buggy took the reins in his hand gave
old Dobbin a gentle slap and set off to see his girl. The first
horseless carriage was built by Charles and Frank Duryea in
Springfield Massachusetts in 1892. It was the Duryeas also who
190
THE COMMA
won the first road automobile race ever held in the United States.
The other day Jane came to me with a photograph album and
said "If you want to see something really amusing look at the
clothes worn by those early drivers." Long loose coats big goggles
and visored caps were used by the men. The ladies not to be
outdone added to this costume long veils which tied their hats
on securely. With a speed of seven miles an hour the cars caused
a great wind a cloud of dust and wild excitement.
EXERCISE 20
Follow the directions in Exercise 19.
Since television has become so popular the average person
reads less according to a recent report. If this is true then the
average person is missing a great experience that could be his.
In the first place reading offers us a chance for vicarious ex-
perience. It may be adventure in distant lands the problems of
raising chickens on a far-from-modern farm or the struggle to
establish a business that pays. However one of the greatest satis-
factions that the average man can obtain from reading is the
mental stimulation of sharing the ideas of great men. Anyone
who has read widely knows what fun it is to meet challenging
ideas to broaden one's own outlook to grow intellectually.
EXERCISE 21
FoUow the directions in Exercise 19.
As Ichabod approached the stream his heart began to thump.
He summoned up however all his resolution gave his horse a
kick in the ribs and attempted to dash briskly across the bridge.
Instead of starting forward the perverse old animal ran broad-
side against the fence. Ichabod whose fears increased with the
delay jerked the reins and kicked the horse lustily. It was all in
vain. His steed started it is true but it was only to plunge to the
opposite side of the road. Ichabod now bestowed both whip and
heel upon the ribs of Old Gunpowder who dashed forward
sniffling and snorting. In a moment he stopped as suddenly as he
had begun. In the dark shadow of the grove Ichabod beheld
something huge black and towering. As he looked he realized
191
■ THE SEMICOLON
with horror that the figure was headless; but his horror was still
greater when he observed that the head which should have rested
on the shoulders was carried before the rider on the pommel of
his saddle.
— Adapted from The Legend of Sleepy Hollow
by Washington Irving
EXERCISE 22
Follow the directions in Exercise 19.
A moment later a throng of people came pouring round the
corner. There could not have been fewer than five hundred and
they were dancing like five thousand demons. At first they were
a mere storm of coarse red caps and coarser woolen rags but
as they filled the square some ghastly apparition gone raving
mad rose among them. They advanced retreated clutched at one
another spun round in pairs until many of them dropped. While
those were down the rest linked hand in hand and all spun
round together. No fight could have been half so terrible as this
dance. It was so emphatically a fallen sport a healthy pastime
changed into a means of angering the blood bewildering the
senses and steeling the heart. This was the Carmagnole.
— Adapted from A Tale of Two Cities
by Charles Dickens
24. THE SEMICOLON
The semicolon is a stronger mark of punctuation than the
comma. It signifies a greater break between sentence parts.
It is used chiefly between parts of a sentence that have equal
rank.
24a. Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses
not joined by a coordinating conjunction {and, but, nor,
for, or).
Please close the window; the room is cold.
I entertain my friends by playing the piano; Ellen does
tap dancing.
192
THE SEMICOLON
24b-c
24b. Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses
connected by a conjunctive adverb (fiowever, more-
over, nevertheless, consequently, therefore, thus, then,
so, yet, otherwise, still, likewise).
They were of opposite characters; yet they remained
friends for many years.
We regret that we have sold all of the blouses in blue;
however, we have the same style in pink.
Note: Do not use a semicolon every time that you see a
conjunctive adverb. Be sure first that you have two in-
dependent clauses.
John, however, has failed to do the work. (This sentence
has no semicolon because however is a parenthetical
expression and does not connect two complete
thoughts.)
24c. Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses
joined by a coordinating conjunction if the clauses are
long or contain commas.
When the scorpion stung the man, he felt a sharp pain
in his foot; but since there was no swelling, he thought
that he had not been injured.
Roberta, a very good friend of mine, wants me to go to
camp with her; but because I have been to camp for
three years in succession, I am undecided.
Caution: Usually no semicolon appears betv^^een an in-
dependent clause and a dependent clause or an independent
clause and a phrase. A semicolon joins only those things
which are in the same form structurally.
Wrong: Whenever I hear from one of the old crowd; memories
rush to my mind. ( The first clause is a dependent clause.
It would not express a complete thought if used alone.
The second clause is an independent clause. It would
express a complete thought if used alone. )
193
■^y THE SEMICOLON
Right: Whenever I hear from one of the crowd, memories rush
to my mind. (See Section 23b.)
Wrong: Everything that you sent me is beautiful; especially the
white doeskin gloves.
Right: Everything that you sent me is beautiful, especially the
white doeskin gloves.
24d. Use a semicolon before explanatory expressions
like for examplef namely.
The government has given to veterans some special con-
siderations; namely, college training, trade training, and
insurance.
24e. A semicolon is sometimes used to separate the
members of a series if any of them contain commas.
Down the field came the newly organized, somewhat in-
competent band; three drum majorettes in white
spangled skirts; and the team, muddy and wretched.
EXERCISE 23
Some of the follovs^ing sentences are correctly punctuated;
others are not. On your paper, rewrite the latter, using
commas and semicolons where they are required. Write
your reason for each correction. If a sentence is correct, do
not rewrite it, but write C beside its number.
1. It is painful for me to recall the story I prefer never to think
of it again.
2. When I arrived at the doctor's office I was asked to give the
history of my life then I was ushered into the main office.
3. I can't imagine what he wants; I never heard of him before.
4. Mr. Howells was born on May 30 1903 in Richmond Virginia
but at the age of two he moved to Long Beach California.
5. Heat expands solids; cold contracts them.
6. Our town has many advantages to ofi^er new residents for
example good schools an excellent shopping center and low
taxes.
7. Guests at the wedding included Mr. and Mrs. Jerome
194
THE SEMICOLON
Woodward of Columbus Ohio Mr. Walter Bums of Auburn
New York and Miss Ellen Ames of Gary Indiana.
8. Mrs. Smith is interested in purchasing some of our stainless
steel products; however, she thinks our prices are too high.
9. Things back home will seem a bit strange to you in fact
everything in the old town has changed.
10. Mr. Mayer noticed that Benito was more alert than the
average Indian servant therefore he decided to send the
child to school.
EXERCISE 24
Follow the directions in Exercise 23.
1. This year I have my last opportunity to win my letter in
basketball and if all goes well I shall soon be wearing the
emblem of the school.
2. If any fault in our service has caused your long absence from
our store we are anxious to correct it for we want you to be
entirely satisfied.
3. It was her first transatlantic voyage in fact it was the first
time she had ever seen the ocean.
4. Johnson hated to be questioned and Boswell was eternally
examining him on all kinds of subjects.
5. I was sure I had no chance of winning the scholarship
nevertheless I determined to try.
6. Contributions were received from Henry Lowell, manager
of the Sunrise Market Ralph Summers proprietor of the
Four Comers Pharmacy and Lillian Moore chief librarian
of the Chestnut Grove Library.
7. Farming seemed to be the chief occupation of the section,
for everywhere one could see fields planted with corn wheat
and potatoes.
8. No one thought until the deadline approached that the men
would strike and it seemed inconceivable that they would
strike against the government after seizure of the plant.
9. On our side of the street the lawns are neat and the hedges
trim on the other side the lawns have tall weeds and ash
cans stand in front of the gates.
10. Jane Winters invited me to a party she is going to give for
195
THE SEMICOLON
Mary Lou; and when she heard that you would be in town,
she included you in the invitation.
EXERCISE 25
Follow the directions in Exercise 23.
1. For twenty years Bos well continued to worship the master
and the master continued to scold the disciple to sneer at
him and to love him.
2. When the game started Leroy who had been a great
success the week before was not on the field and all of the
spectators wondered what had happened to him.
3. In the neighborhood where I lived there were no movies,
playgrounds, or nursery schools where children could go for
recreation; therefore, the streets and empty lots were used
for play.
4. It will in the future not be possible to provide Mr. Schultz
with room and board at the building consequently some
adjustment in his salary is necessary.
5. The equipment is available for use by anyone that needs it
however the laboratory employees are responsible for
keeping it in good condition.
6. Not only was there trouble with the chickens but since the
farm was far from modern Hilda had to struggle with the
stove the plumbing and the heating system.
7. Boswell was very much attracted to Johnson; he made it his
business to watch the great man to discover his habits and
to remember the remarkable things he said.
8. Salt lowers the freezing point of water that is it causes ice
to melt at a temperature below 32 degrees.
9. I explained that it would be impossible to fill the order
at once because the current model is out of stock and is not
being reordered however I assured the customer that just
as soon as the new model is delivered we will make the
shipment.
10. There is to be a meeting with the City Council on Monday,
June 11, to consider the budget of the Department of Public
Welfare; and representatives of this group are planning to
appear to show why the funds are necessary.
196
THE COLON
25ci-c
25. THE COLON
The colon is used chiefly to introduce lists, series, ex-
planations, or formal quotations.
25a. Use a colon to introduce a list.
Please send by express the following:
1 White bathing suit #427, size 14
2 Red beach robes #228, medium size
1 Beach umbrella, red and black, #426
We have notified the following people: Mr. James Mont-
gomery, Captain Richard Stout, Dr. Ezra Watkins,
Mrs. Martin Slocum.
The purpose of our trip was threefold: to select a site for
the new branch factory, to visit prospective customers,
and to enjoy a short vacation in the mountains.
Note: Do not use a colon after are or were when a simple
series follows.
The kinds of dogs to be found at the kennels are terriers,
bulls, and collies.
25b. Use a colon to introduce a formal statement or
a formal quotation.
Robert E. Lee is reputed to have said: "Duty is the
sublimest word in the English language."
25c. Use a colon after a statement which is followed
by an explanatory clause or expression.
These two things he admired: an honest man and a
beautiful woman.
My objection to the plan is this: it will cost a great deal
of money, and the returns are likely to be small for
many years.
Everything was in good shape for the meeting: chairs
placed, pads and pencils ready, and a pitcher of water
at the head of the table.
197
'mff THE COLON
25cl. Use a colon after the formal salutation of a busi-
ness letter.
Dear Mr. Henderson:
25e. Use a colon to separate hour and minute figures
In writing time, the act from the scene of a play, the
title of a book from the subtitle, the verse following
the biblical chapter.
7:35
Hamlet 1:2
Principles of Geology: A College Textbook
Mark 6:10
Caution:
1. When such as is followed by a short illustration, usu-
ally only a comma is necessary.
He has visited many countries, such as Italy, Switzerland,
Austria, and France.
2. The words namely, viz., i.e., that is are usually pre-
ceded by a semicolon unless the material following is very
long.
We have studied five parts of speech; namely, nouns, pro-
nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
EXERCISE 26
Write the following sentences on your paper. Place
commas, semicolons, and colons where they are needed.
Give the reason for each correction.
1. Above everything else he hated one thing hypocrisy.
2. He could barely read the sign "Danger, Explosives."
3. The players came from all over the world Germany Italy
Japan Russia China and Canada.
4. Howard had little money therefore he had to walk all the
way.
5. The lecturer said that we must do three things balance the
198
THE COLON
budget, go back on the gold standard, and raise tari£Fs how-
ever he would not guarantee an immediate return of pros-
perity.
6. My father thought that the minister was referring to John
3 16 nevertheless, I was certain that he meant Luke 9 10.
7. This is his program for healtMul living drink plenty of milk
eat good-sized quantities of fresh, green vegetables take
exercise every day, preferably in the open air sleep at least
eight hours every night.
8. A football team can be little better than its signal-caller that
is to say, its success depends upon the plays it uses.
9. There are three things that I wish to do before I die go to
Europe bathe in the warm, inviting waters of Waikiki Beach
see the Taj Mahal.
10. Stuart Chase once wrote "For the milk of human kindness
the most obvious substitute is soft soap."
11. He has a very sore leg consequently, he cannot make the
trip.
12. The letter began "Dear President Smith I intended to answer
your last letter more promptly than this however, I have
been so occupied that I have not had time to give my
answer the thought it deserved."
13. At 12 15 last night our telephone rang loudly but when I
answered it, nobody replied.
14. The notice had an ominous ring to it "All lights must be
extinguished at 10 15 sharp."
15. You should give that chair at least two coats of flat paint,
then you should put on one coat of varnish.
16. It has been our experience that success in college depends
to a great extent on one trait namely, the ability to con-
centrate.
17. There is nothing very original about the street names in our
town Main Street, Broad Street, Bank Street, and so on.
18. He used to astound his friends by quoting something and
then rattling off the source for it, such as Macbeth I 2, or
Romeo and Juliet IV 1.
19. Please wipe your feet carefully, our front hall is beginning
to look like a pigsty.
20. The Johns Hopkins University has six divisions College of
199
THE COLON
Arts and Sciences, College for Engineers, Graduate School,
Medical School, School of Public Health, and McCoy Col-
lege,
21. My itinerary, which I obtained from the travel agent this
morning, is certain to do one thing for me, if nothing else
it will take me to all the important art galleries in Europe.
22. When he rose to speak, the president of the university threw
back his head and began "Ladies and gentlemen, in the
troubled times ahead we shall be called upon to make many
adjustments, but there is one principle to which we must
cling tenaciously it is freedom of speech."
23. In our modern, complicated society, students must do three
things they must ask for the source of all information before
they believe it they must learn to recognize bad reasoning
they must send to their lawmaking bodies only well quali-
fied representatives.
24. The train was scheduled to arrive in Milwaukee at 6 45,
but when we left the station at 8 30, there was still no
definite news of the time of its arrival.
25. Dr. Isaiah Bowman said in his address "The trade school
exists for the admirable purpose of putting practically trained
men into jobs the university exists, among other things, to
create and expand the sciences that provide the jobs."
EXERCISE 27
On your paper, write these sentences, placing commas,
colons, and semicolons where they should be.
1. These are the words of Edmund Burke a fine statesman "A
great empire and little minds go ill together."
2. I should like to make this motion that we appoint a com-
mittee to study the whole question and report the findings
to the Board of Directors.
3. When she gave the girl advice Mrs. Martin quoted this very
appropriate line "Gather ye rosebuds while ye may."
4. Edmund Burke objected to force as a means of handling the
colonies for these four reasons it is uncertain it is temporary
it impairs the object and England has had no experience in
using it.
200
THE apostrophe: possessives and plurals
5. One point which you will all concede is this Walt Whitman
is one of the greatest figures in American poetry.
6. The framework of the bill is as follows the commission will
consist of a chairman and four members appointed by the
President subject to the approval of the Senate.
7. We sent him a telegram which said "Meet 8:50 Northern
Pacific train from Spokane."
8. The questions which we must decide are these shall we
have a committee to plan the improvements and shall this
committee be appointed or elected?
9. Scientists do not rely entirely on the evidence of the lie
detector for an obvious reason all people are not frightened
by a third degree.
10. The train stopped between two white fields ahead the snow
had buried the tracks.
26. THE APOSTROPHE: POSSESSIVES
AND PLURALS
The apostrophe is used to indicate the possessive case
of nouns and of pronouns like anybody, someone, one,
everybody.
Carl's book was lost.
Someone's hat was left in the locker room.
26a. Use an apostrophe and s to form the possessive
of all singular nouns.
boy's, dog's, doctor's, lady's, James's, Dickens's, Mr.
Jones's
Note:
1. The apostrophe comes before the s if the word is
singular.
2. Singular nouns ending normally in s may omit the
second s. The apostrophe will then be placed after the s
which is part of the noun.
James' ch: James's (But not Jame's)
201
26b-cl
THE APOSTROPHE: POSSESSIVES AND PLURALS
Keats' or Keats's (But not Keat's)
Dickens' or Dickens's (But not Dickens)
If the addition of an s causes difficulty in pronunciation,
add only the apostrophe.
Aristophanes', princess'
26b. Use an apostrophe alone to form the possessive
of plural nouns ending in s.
Most plurals are formed by adding -5. Place the apos-
trophe after this s. ( See Section 39d. )
boys', dogs', doctors', soldiers', friends'
Nouns that end in s in the singular must add -es for the
plurals. The possessive form of these nouns has an apos-
trophe after the final s.
The Joneses' house burned last night.
A few plurals do not end in s. These must add s to form
the possessive.
men's, women's, children's, people's
26c. When two or more people possess a thing to-
gether, the sign of the possessive is added to the last
v/ord.
I'll meet you at Levy and Brown's store.
Henderson, Sellers, and Company's branch ofiice is on
Second Avenue.
We went into Ed and John's room to see their school
pennants.
26d. Add the apostrophe to the last member of a com-
pound phrase.
somebody else's book
my mother-in-law's house
sister-in-law (Singular)
202
THE APOSTROPHE: POSSESSIVES AND PLXmALS
26e-h
sister-in-law's house (Singular possessive)
sisters-in-law (Plural) I have three sisters-in-law.
sisters-in-law's (Plural possessive)
My sisters-in-law's dispositions are all bright and cheer-
ful.
26e. Use an apostrophe with each noun when sepa-
rate ownership is indicated.
Sally's and Helen's dates for the dance are both very tall.
Albert's and Roger's sisters are blondes.
26f. Use an apostrophe in contractions to indicate the
omission of a letter.
don't (do not)
can't (cannot)
haven't (have not)
shan't (shall not)
Note: Although the II in shall and the o in not are omitted
in shan't, only one apostrophe is used.
26g. Use an apostrophe and s to form the plural of a
letter, figure, or word considered as a word.
There are two r's in my name.
Your theme has too many end's.
He wrote three 2's on the paper.
Note: Letters, figures, and words used in this way are
italicized. ( See Section 34c. )
26h. The possessive case of a noun or pronoun is used
before a gerund.
Wrong: I do not approve of John playing football.
Right: I do not approve of John's playing football.
Wrong: Has Father agreed to you studying German?
Right: Has Father agreed to your studying German?
Note: Be careful to distinguish between the gerund and
203
THE apostrophe: possessives and plurals
the participle. Although they look exactly alike, the par-
ticiple is used as an adjective, whereas the gerund is used as
a noun. ( See Section 3g. )
I saw John writing a letter. (Correct. John is the object
of saw; writing, a participle, merely modifies John. )
I do not like John's writing without my knowledge.
(Writing is the object of like and is therefore a ger-
und.)
26i. Be careful to use the apostrophe only when it is
needed.
1. Usually, in formal English, only nouns indicating living
things are used in the possessive case. Some organizations
composed of living people may be considered possessive.
Correct: the company's plan
the city's streets
Informal: the desk's top
Correct: the top of the desk
2. Some expressions of time and some idiomatic expres-
sions may be possessive.
A week's pay, a month's rest, today's paper, a hair's
breadth, for goodness' sake
3. Be sure that the word is completed before the apostro-
phe is used.
Wrong: Charle's finger, Mr. Jone's hat, Mr. Hopkin's new car
Right: Charles's (or Charles') finger, Mr. Jones's (or Jones')
hat,, Mr. Hopkins's (or Hopkins') new car
4. Be careful not to use an apostrophe before or after s
ending a verb.
Wrong: He lives' near us.
Right: He lives near us.
5. Never use the apostrophe to form the nominative or
objective plural. (See Section 14.)
204
THE apostrophe: possessives and plurals
Wrong: The Smiths' were present at the party.
The Jones's have just come home.
The present was from the Raiders'.
Right: The Smiths were present at the party.
The Joneses have just come home.
The present was from the Raiders.
6. In contractions be sure to put the apostrophe exactly
where a letter has been omitted.
Wrong: do'nt, have'nt, whos'
Right: don't, haven't, who's
Note: Who's means "who is." The possessive pronoun is
whose.
Whose book is this?
Who's at the door?
7. Do not use an apostrophe with pronouns ending in
-self or -selves.
Oneself, themselves
8. The apostrophe is never used to form the possessive
case of personal pronouns ( hers, yours, ours, his, its, theirs ) .
The dog wagged its tail. (Possessive)
Do not confuse the possessive form its with the contraction
it's (it is).
It's a beautiful day.
EXERCISE 28
Most of the following sentences contain errors in the
use of apostrophes and the possessive case. On your paper
rewrite these sentences, adding apostrophes where they are
needed, correcting words in which apostrophes have been
used incorrectly, or making any other necessary change.
Write your reason for making each change. If a sentence is
correct, do not rewrite it, but write C beside its number.
205
THE apostrophe: possessives and plurals
1. After Bobs part in the play was over, he collapsed in the
dressing room.
2. I like the book because the authors style is clear and stimu-
lating.
3. In music appreciation class we learned about various musi-
cians lives.
4. Any educated persons opinion on the matter would be worth
considering.
5. Anne Hathaway was Shakespeare's wife.
6. Dickens books are very popular in our class,
7. James brother Allen is our new clerk.
8. We all like Frances singing.
9. It's nobody's business what I do with my money.
10. Is that hat yours or hers?
11. My sister-in-laws house has just been sold.
12. The stenographers desks have all been painted.
13. The princess clothes were embroidered beautifully.
14. The firemens struggle to save the building was heroic but
futile.
15. All requests for tickets must be sent to the womens com-
mittee.
16. For pitys sake, do something.
17. My respect for my church and it's beliefs is a result of my
home training.
18. Arrangements were made to have the food prepared by the
mothers' group.
19. Sue Pinemans parents went to Bismarck last week, and Sue
and her brother staved with us.
20. One of the Tibetan natives dragged away the plane's radio.
21. The Bermans' invited their niece to spend the weekend at
Adantic City.
22. On Thanksgiving Day we have the annual game between
the two boys high schools.
23. My parents finally gave in and said I could get my drivers
license.
24. The neighbor's considered Dunstan a spiteful person, in-
capable of interest in another persons welfare.
25. The day's end came so quickly that I couldnt believe I had
been working for ten hours.
206
THE apostrophe: possessives and plurals
EXERCISE 29
Follow the directions in Exercise 28.
1. In the Shakespearean theater, the womens parts were played
by young boys.
2. Pepys diary gives an excellent picture of the time's in whicli
he lived.
3. Ellen combs the cats fur every day, but she never clips its
claws.
4. Who's house is this?
5. The policemens white gloves were spattered with mud.
6. One years work in history and two years work in mathe-
matics are necessary for graduation.
7. This years Press is a real students paper, reflecting the ideas
and thoughts of the student body.
8. There is no record of that oflRcer having been assigned to
the duty mentioned.
9. Mother does not approve of James writing to Charlotte.
10. The nurses' headquarters are next to Dr. Bright's hospital.
11. We were surprised to hear of the citizens decision to call
a buyers strike.
12. The government should use it's influence to prevent the man
being sacrificed to a local quarrel.
13. When Janes house was robbed last night, the thieves took
her mothers fur coat and her two sisters watches.
14. Fifteen years experience in banking makes it possible for us
to handle our clients investments with skill.
15. The flowers which came from Hazlitt and Paine's store were
sent by the Burtons.
16. Somebodys coat has been left on the Clarks porch.
17. At Mr. Carltons suggestion, I am sending you samples of
materials for childrens dresses.
18. I cannot understand Doris refusing to help you.
19. We had Rivers Chambers orchestra, and the girls favors
were school seals.
20. Conner and Evans business, including the goods on hand
and all the companys fixtures, was sold for $130,000.
21. The United Automobile Companys annual report shows a
stockholders dividend of 4 percent,
207
■ QUOTATION MABKS
22. In yesterdays mail there was an order from J. M. Hawkins
Office Supply Company.
23. A ladies purse with a monogram of two T s was lost in
Benton and Kings store on Friday.
24. My sister-in-laws wedding dress came from the new womens
dress department at Hughes department store.
25. There have been in the papers a great many articles about
Houston getting a football franchise in the All-American
Conference.
27. QUOTATION MARKS
27a. Quotation marks are used at the beginning and
at the end of the exact words which a person says
(direct quotations).
Right: Scott said, "I am going home."
Right: Scott said that he was going home.
Wrong: Scott said "that he was going home."
The second and third sentences contain an indirect
quotation. The exact words which Scott used are not in
the sentence; therefore no quotation marks are necessary.
The first word in a direct quotation is capitalized. If
the quotation is introduced by an expression such as he
said, a comma must precede the opening quotation marks.
Martin said, "It looks like rain."
If the sentence does not end with the quotation, a comma
is required before the closing quotation marks, unless the
structure of the sentence or of the quotation calls for some
other mark of punctuation. ( See Section 27f . )
Martin said, "It looks like rain," but Lana disagreed with
him.
If the quotation consists of several sentences, quotation
marks do not introduce each sentence. Use quotation marks
only at the beginning and end of an unbroken quotation.
208
QUOTATION MARKS ^imW m9^W^
She said, "I have promised to go downtown. Perhaps I
could change the arrangements. I'll let you know in
a few minutes."
Oliver Wendell Holmes says in The Autocrat of the
Breakfast Table: "This business of conversation is a
serious matter. There are men of esprit who are ex-
cessively exhausting to some people. They are the talk-
ers that have what may be called jerky minds. Their
thoughts do not run in the natural order of sequence."
27b. If there is a long quotation which includes sev-
eral paragraphs or several stanzas of poetry, quota-
tion marks should be used at the beginning of each
paragraph but not at the end of each paragraph. They
are used at the end of the last paragraph only.
27c. In dialogue, every change of speaker requires a
separate paragraph.
"I've never gone to a better dance," said Jessie.
"It must have been great fun," answered Ida. "Who took
you?"
"I went with Ed, and Sally and Paul joined us. After-
wards we all went to Saunders' for a hamburger."
27d. If the quotation is broken by an expression like
he said, Mary answered, this expression must not be
included in the quotation marks.
"If you go," he said, "be sure to let me know."
"No," Andrew objected, "I am afraid that I can't agree
that you have found the right solution."
If a quotation broken by an expression like he said is
composed of more than one sentence, be sure to use a
period, an exclamation point, or a question mark at the
end of each sentence.
"It's raining hard," Harold said. "There is no fun on a
picnic in the rain. Do you want to go home?"
209
■^P QUOTATION MARKS
27e. A quotation mside another quotation is enclosed
in single quotation marks.
"When I telephoned her last night," said Gary, "she told me
again and again, 'Don't worry. I won't let you down.' "
27f. Commas and periods are placed inside the closing
quotation marks; semicolons and colons are placed
outside; question marks and exclamation points are
placed inside or outside the quotation marks, accord-
ing to the meaning of the sentence.
We heard Phyllis say, "Don't wait for me," and then we
heard a sudden cry.
Andrew said, "Don't worry."
The postman said, "I never receive any mail"; he looked
so depressed that we shared our postcards with him.
This is what Jim meant when he said, "Bring everything
we shall need": food, feed for the horses, bedrolls,
cooking utensils, and warm clothing.
He asked, "Who has my knife?" (The question mark is
part of the quotation.)
Did Nancy really say, "I won't go"? (The question mark
is not part of the quotation.)
Rob cried, "There goes my hat!" (The exclamation point
is part of the quotation.)
How amazed I was to hear her say, "You have won"! (The
exclamation point is not part of the quotation.)
27g. Use quotation marks to enclose technical terms
in nontechnical writfng.
This is a heavily "watered" issue of stock.
A common problem in home aquariums is "green water."
Note: Use quotation marks only if the term is one which is
likely to be unfamiliar to your reader. For example, do not
enclose in quotation marks the names of parts of an auto-
mobile engine; though they are technical terms, they are
familiar to most people.
210
QUOTATION MARKS
27h. In formal writing use quotation marks to enclose
words which suggest a different level of usage.
The prevailing opinion is that President Slade informed
the Board of Directors that their decision was "cock-
eyed."
The symphony was conducted by a "stuflFed shirt."
Caution:
1. Quotation marks always go in pairs. Be careful to in-
dicate both the beginning and the end of a quotation.
2. Do not use quotation marks to indicate humor.
27i. Use quotation marks to enclose titles of magazine
articles, short stories, and short poems. (See Section
34a.)
"The Gold Bug," a short story by Edgar Allan Poe, is
one of the early classics of detective fiction.
Have you ever read Shelley's poem "To a Skylark"?
EXERCISE 30
On your paper, write the following dialogue, adding
quotation marks and other punctuation where necessary,
and beginning new paragraphs when required:
Ralph and I had a long talk last night said Betty Lou. He thinks
that we should go steady, but my mother is definitely hard to
deal with. Parents can be such problems sympathized Jacque-
line. My mother always insists upon calling me Jacqueline. Im-
agine giving a girl such a name. It's only with my own friends,
who understand me, that I can be called Jackie. It would be
definitely romantic to go steady with Ralph. What did you tell
him? What could I tell him? My mother's same old line. Girls
should know a number of boys. I'm too young to go steady, et
cetera. Jackie sipped her lemonade. It's terrific the way parents
behave she said. If you went steady with Ralph you'd always
have a good date for every dance. If you don't go steady, a boy
can always make a date with someone else. Betty Lou sighed.
211
I ACHIEVEMENT TESTS ON PUNCTUATION
Oh well, there's nothing I can do. My mother even invited some
friend of hers to bring her son for dinner so that I'd get inter-
ested in somebody besides Ralph. I didn't like him at all. Hi,
Sonny, she called as a blond youth came into the drug store;
what's on your mind? Parents answered the boy, joining the two
girls. They give a guy more trouble.
28. ACHIEVEMENT TESTS ON PUNCTUATION
28a. Achievement Test I on commas, semicolons, co*
Ions, apostrophes, quotation marks.
On your paper, write the following sentences, placing
punctuation marks where they are required. If any punctua-
tion marks have been incorrectly used, make any necessary
corrections. Write your reason for each correction. If a
sentence requires no correction, do not rewrite it; but write
C beside its number.
1. When the lecturer arrived at 8 30 the hall was filled.
2. The sales volume of the company was declining consequently
the management increased its advertising appropriation.
3. A business letter should be friendly courteous and conserva-
tive in statement.
4. If businessmen are really interested in their government they
can improve it in many ways.
5. The speakers manner was pleasing but his enunciation was
poor.
6. When Joan arrived we were in the midst of great prepara-
tions for my grandparents fiftieth wedding anniversary.
7. According to reports made by R. T. McClintook the com-
missioner of public roads the proposed highway will greatly
aid trafiic between Easton Maryland and Charleston South
Carolina.
8. We are pleased to notify you that in accordance with vour
request of February 10 we have opened a charge account
for you.
9. Dont get excited said Jane, Mother will bring the books
when she comes to see you.
212
ACHIEVEMENT TESTS ON PUNCTUATION
10. Martin Williamson son of Mr. and Mrs. Peter Williamson 918
Wendover Road Dover Delaware was selected for one of
the scholarships.
11. Its likely that the club will move into its new quarters next
month.
12. When I heard the policemens whistles I thought that some-
thing dreadful had happened.
13. Each of the characters' was presented with great care, as
a result the novel was very striking.
14. One fact is clear and indisputable the public and avowed
origin of this quarrel was taxation.
15. During this period the first organized resistance began and
a number of employees looking for a solution of their prob-
lems joined labor unions.
16. Im afraid we cant go to the game Sam said David unless
you can get your car. My father is going to use ours.
17. In the nineteenth century men worked for long hours in
factories and debtors prisons constantly faced the people.
18. Jim had borrowed his father's car for the occasion, and I
felt quite smart when he helped me into the new Buick.
19. Dr. Martin Baum president of the society sent letters of in-
vitation to Dr. Hubert Enders Dr. Mark Candell and Dr.
Ellen Harrington.
20. Randolph, Brown and Company new store has a sale of
mens womens and childrens clothes.
21. Ralph has no regard for other peoples property for instance
last night he put his feet up on Mrs. Simpsons new sofa.
22. Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden is often called the father of
modern field artillery because he standardized the calibers
of his guns brought into existence lighter carriages and
placed powder and projectile together.
23. The captain gave orders for everyone to go below and told
the sailors to lower the sails.
24. Along the route of the parade people lined the streets filled
the windows of oflRce buildings and added a new silhouette
to the rooftops.
25. The proposed bridge, which will cost $1,397,000, will be
valuable to many businessmen.
213
ACHIEVEMENT TESTS ON PUNCTUATION
28b. Achievement Test II on commas, semicolons, co-
lons, apostrophes, quotation marks.
Follow the directions given for Achievement Test I.
1. I am not sure about Ralph going to college.
2. Fredleys store will be glad to grant credit to new residents
who want exclusive tailoring,
3. In Walter Reeds experiment with yellow fever some men
were put in perfectly sterile rooms and others slept in a
place that contained yellow-fever victims clothing.
4. The pressure groups claimed that if price controls were re-
leased production would increase goods would pour into the
markets and prices would control themselves.
5. In the final vote, twenty boys expressed a willingness to
try the new method; five turned down the plan; and three
voted for it with an amendment.
6. As we approached a small desolate farm on the side of a
lonely country road we were attracted by the fields which
were full of uncultivated cotton and tobacco.
7. Waterview Avenue will play an important part in the city's
plans, for Totem Street will be connected to Waterview by
a bridge 2,300 feet long.
8. When the bully beat up one of Hanks friends a short skinny
fellow who limped Hank rushed to the rescue.
9. A course in critical thinking has taught us the difference
between fact and opinion truth and propaganda and good
and bad sources of information.
10. As practical as the Greeks were they failed to realize the
power of war engines consequently it was not until the
time of Alexander that these weapons were developed.
11. In the morning of one of our last days at camp we had a
dress rehearsal which was given for the young children who
could not stay up late at night.
12. I want to find out if there is any chance of Jack getting a
room in the dormitory.
13. The medical clinics occupied the second floor of the dis-
pensary and consisted of rooms for treating diseases of the
eyes nose throat and ears.
214
ACHIEVEMENT TESTS ON PUNCTUATION
14. After years of secret work in laboratories and months of
limited commercial operation this powerful device was at
last ready for the public.
15. My practical experience in selling has been obtained in
Green and Hoskins Infant Department and in the offices
of the Dalton Motor Company.
16. Among my fellow art majors who shared my zest for art
and who liked to spend their free time with the paints and
brushes I found the kind of companionship I had longed
for since early childhood.
17. At eight o'clock Marion said cheerfully we got dressed in
our best clothes and went to the theater.
18. Five-year-old Tommy Lynn and his dog Bozo lost since
Thursday in the Coconine National Forest were found this
morning but the search continued for his three-year-old
sister Estelle who disappeared at the same time.
19. Filled with excitement and joy the child rushed into the
Hving room shouting Uncle John has given me a little white
rabbit. May I keep it?
20. I am sending you a sample of Chinese brocade from Nortons
shop and should greatly appreciate Helen trying to match
it for me Marian wrote.
21. A sale of womens and misses clothes nearly caused a riot
at Prestons store yesterday.
22. Simple clear bold and straightforward in mind and action
Colonel Settle was one of natures noblemen.
23. While she was restrained by her husband a man of sense
and firmness her worst offenses were impertinent jokes little
white lies and short fits of pettishness but after his death
she did many things which worried her friends.
24. Dr. Phelps who will retire at the end of the month said to
the nurses at their graduation exercises some nurses train-
ing schools in their eagerness for progress are placing too
much emphasis on medication and methods. Remember that
the care of the patient as a person is your first concern.
25. Please follow these directions for typing the paper
Double-space the lines.
Use a 1/2-inch left-hand margin.
Write all headings in capitals.
215
29a-b
THE PERIOD
29. THE PERIOD
29a. Use a period at the end of every complete declara-
tive sentence.
It was a cold, dismal day.
Although his health was poor, he decided to leave the
sanatorium.
You go ahead with your proposed trip; I shall remain at
home.
Note:
1. Do not punctuate sentence fragments as complete units
of thought unless they obviously stand for complete ex-
pressions. (See Section 55.)
Correct: "I want to go with you."
"All right."
"When do you leave?"
"Tomorrow."
Incorrect: Walking as fast as he could.
At an early hour when few are awake.
2. Periods are also used after mildly imperative sentences;
exclamation marks are used after vigorously imperative
sentences. ( See Section 30a. )
Look before you leap.
Leave the house at once!
29b. Use a period after a standard abbreviation,
James Smith, Esq., was director of the enterprise.
The envelope was addressed to Paul Travin, M.D.; the
postmark was London.
Henry Jones, D.D. (b. 1875; d. 1937)
Dec. 10; bbl.; n.b.; qt.; p.m.
Note:
1. Abbreviations of the names of some government
agencies and some international organizations are generally
216
EXCLAMATION POINTS AND QUESTION MARKS
30ci-c
written without periods, especially if the letters form a com-
bination that can be pronounced as a word.
UNESCO came into being on November 4, 1946.
Norway and Iceland were among the twelve original
member nations of NATO.
2. Although percent is an abbreviation of the Latin phrase
per centum, it is written without a period.
3. No period is used with the ordinal numbers when they
are written 1st, 2nd, and so on.
30. EXCLAMATION POINTS AND
QUESTION MARKS
30a. Use the exclamation point to express surprise,
command, emphasis, or strong emotion.
Help! Help!
What! Are you certain?
How lucky we are to have such good weather!
30b. Use a question mark at the end of every direct
question.
Do you really know the whole story?
Why are you so eager to go to Sea Island?
Caution: Do not use the question mark after an indirect
question.
Wrong: I was asked whether I wanted to go?
Right: I was asked whether I wanted to go.
30c. Use a question mark enclosed in parentheses to
express doubt or uncertainty.
The ships shown in this painting are the Washington, the
Swallow, and the Ladij Clinton {?).
Richardson was born in 1900 (?) in Selma.
Caution: Do not overuse the question mark for this purpose.
217
31a-b
THE DASH
If it is impossible for you to find the exact information
needed, you may use the question mark. But do not use it
as a lazy excuse for not doing research. Do not use the
question mark to express irony or humor.
31. THE DASH
Too frequent use of the dash makes a sensational style.
Careless writers sometimes think that the dash makes a
chatty, informal style. As a result, they sprinkle friendly
letters with dashes. Never use the dash as a substitute for
a period, a semicolon, or a colon.
Wrong: When we reached home, the house was completely
dark — we opened the door and saw Jo-Jo wagging his
tail.
Right: When we reached home, the house was completely
dark. We opened the door and saw Jo-Jo wagging his
tail.
31a. Use a dash to indicate a break or shift of thought.
Here is a fuller explanation — but perhaps you are not
interested.
He is the most despicable — but I should not say any
more.
Do we — can we — propose such action to the trustees?
Note: Omit the period when a statement ends with a dash.
Well, if that is how you feel —
George began, "May I ask — "
31b. Use the dash to set ofF sharply distinguished
parenthetical matter or to secure emphasis or suspense.
I am unalterably opposed — unalterably, I repeat — to this
suggestion.
She was aware — she must have known — that the pro-
posal was hopeless.
I was pleased — delighted, I should say — to hear your
excellent report.
218
THE DASH ^S IC^^d
Note: When the parenthetical material set oflF by dashes
requires an exclamation point or question mark, such
punctuation should precede the second dash.
If I should miss the train — heaven forbid! — I'll telephone
you.
31c. Use the dash to indicate the omission of words or
letters.
General B — was an excellent soldier.
The Civil War was fought 1861-1865.
Note: The dash used with numbers is a short dash.
3 Id. The dash may be used instead of the comma to
separate long appositive expressions from the rest of
a sentence.
All the dogs in town — dalmatians, dachshunds, deer
hounds — lined up for the animal parade.
EXERCISE 31
On your paper, rewrite the following sentences, placing
dashes where they are required:
1. Col. John Hudson from Kansas, you know fought in France
in 1942.
2. When I looked up my heart misses a beat even now at the
very memory I saw a huge beast before me!
3. You are too how shall I say? too matter-of-fact to do such
a hotheaded thing.
4. From 1922 to 1925 perhaps it was 1921 1925 the man made
a canvass of the city of Los Angeles.
5. As I was walking along Waverly Place but before that I
should mention the sight I saw on Twenty-first Street
6. He was a large man who wore a straw hat and a topcoat a
very odd sight, I assure you.
7. The food was excellent, but the boarders
8. I am reasonably certain no, I am positive that you will like
this if you will only give it a fair trial.
219
THE HYPHEN AND SYLLABIFICATION
EXERCISE 32
On your paper, rewrite the following sentences, placing
periods, exclamation points, and question marks where they
are required:
1. The letter was addressed as follows: "Milton Johnson, M D,
Barton, Nev"
2. How feverish you seem Are you certain you are all right
Shall I call Dr. Jones You must be ill
3. Ouch Watch where you are going
4. "Why is he leaving Any particular reason" asked Adam
5. Please stop that You know crying only makes you feel worse
6. He asked John if he would go John emphatically said,
"Never"
7. Are you quite certain that he holds the degree of M D
8. Fifty percent, of the boys left for the holidays on Dec 20;
the others all left on Dec 22
9. Isn't it strange that Dr and Mrs Browne were both born
on December 11, 1908
10. Bob is in his fourth year at the University of Minnesota,
but he is still not quite certain whether, after college, he
will work for his father or try to earn a degree of D D S
32. THE HYPHEN AND SYLLABIFICATION
The hyphen is more a mark of spelling than of punctua-
tion. It indicates that two words or two parts of one word
belong together. The hyphen is a mechanical device which
is necessary for correct, clear writing. It should be sharply
distinguished from the dash, which is longer.
Syllabification is the act or method of dividing words into
syllables.
32a. Use a hyphen to join the parts of a compound
word.
The use of a hyphen in joining compound words varies
greatly. Do not attempt to learn the numerous rules; con-
sult a standard dictionary.
220
THE HYPHEN AND SYLLABIFICATION
Hyphens are generally used:
1. Between two or more words modifying a substantive
and used as a single adjective: a well-bred person; a never-
to-be-forgotten incident. But when adverbs ending in -lij
occur in such expressions, the hyphen is not used: highly
seasoned food. (Do not mistake adjectives ending in -lij
for adverbs. Write a lively-sounding tune, a manly-looki7ig
boy.)
2. Between the parts of compound numerals (from
twenty-one to ninety-nine ) : fifty-two; eighty-four.
3. Between the numerator and denominator of a fraction:
a four-fifths majority.
4. Between the parts of certain compound nouns, ad-
verbs, and verbs: actor-manager; a well-nigh hopeless task;
to dry-clean a dress.
Note: Distinguish carefully between the short mark (period,
dot) generally used by dictionaries to divide syllables and
the longer mark (hyphen) used to link two words. (See
Section 37. )
32b. Use a hyphen to indicate the division of a word
broken at the end of a line.
The rambling old house, it is true, would look consider-
ably better if it were freshly painted.
Note:
1. Do not divide a word at the end of a line if you can
avoid doing so.
2. Place the hyphen at the end of the first line, never
at the beginning of the second.
3. Never divide a word of one syllable. Such words as
purse, through, though, ground, death, grace, quick, asked,
and breadth cannot be divided. Write the complete word on
the first line, or leave a blank space and carry the whole
word over to the next line.
221
■ PABENTHESES AND BRACKETS
4. Consult your dictionary to determine the correct
syllabification of words. It is easier to consult an authority
than to learn the various rules for dividing words. The
following suggestions may be helpful, however:
Prefixes and suffixes may be written separately.
Compound words are divided between their main parts.
Two consonants are usually divided.
EXERCISE 33
1. With the aid of your dictionary, determine which of the
following words are compounds and should be written with
hyphens: notebook, mother inlaiv, understand, laborsaving, air-
tight, bathroom, foregoing, selfstarter, hangeron, blowout, quiet-
spoken, hardworking, thirtynine, onstage, crazyquilt.
2. Syllabify the following words: symphony, revolt, delicious,
radiation, carefully, torpedo, chemical, heighten, throughout,
grounded.
33. PARENTHESES AND BRACKETS
Do not confuse brackets [ ] and parentheses ( ) . Brackets
are used to set off inserted matter as extraneous or merely
incidental to the context, especially comments made by
someone other than the author of the text. Such interpola-
tions may be corrections, comments, or explanations.
Brackets are used to set apart the writer's additions to
quoted material; parentheses are used to enclose the original
author's own words.
33a. Use parentheses to enclose parenthetical material
which is only remotely connected with the context.
This punctuation (I am convinced it is important) should
be carefully studied.
If you find any holly berries (surely they must be nu-
merous now), please bring me some.
Note: In such constructions the parenthetical material
merely amplifies the thought. Thus many writers prefer
222
PARENTHESES AND BRACKETS
dashes to parentheses. The marks may be used inter-
changeably, although parentheses are more commonly used
when the parenthetical material takes the form of a com-
plete sentence.
33b. Use parentheses to enclose references and direc*
tions.
Agrarianism (see Book I) was the next topic discussed.
Avoid illogical comparisons. (See Chapter X.)
33c. Use parentheses to enclose figures repeated to
ensure accuracy.
He paid ten dollars ($10.00) for the shoes.
There were thirty (30) claims for damages.
Note: Students often have an idea that a number written
out must be followed by numerals. This is a mistaken notion;
except in legal documents, words or figures alone are
sufficient.
33d. Do not use parentheses to cancel parts of your
writing. Erase or draw lines through the words you
wish to delete.
33e. Use brackets to enclose material interpolated in
a passage quoted from someone else.
"In 1865 he [Lincoln] was a candidate for the Republi-
can vice-presidential nomination."
"The youth of today [1775] are an unruly lot."
EXERCISE 34
On your paper, write the following sentences, placing
parentheses or brackets wherever they are required:
1. It was in December I think it was December that Mrs. Glass
became ill.
2. The measurements of the lot 90 by 60 feet were considered
small.
223
■ ITALICS
3. The mean old ogre he is all of that made the child cry
bitterly.
4. "The magazine was first published in the nineteenth cen-
tury 1878 by Lee and Jones now known as Jones and Bush-
wick."
5. This article by James Hayes you remember him? has been
widely quoted.
6. Plain Sense was published in the nineteenth century 1836
by an English firm.
7. Totalitarianism see Chapter 10 was eagerly discussed at the
last meeting of the Philosophy Club.
8. This book the one I referred to earlier is an excellent ex-
ample of sixteenth-century thought.
34. ITALICS
Alaterial that would be italicized in print is underlined
in typed or handwritten papers.
34a. Use italics (underlining) to indicate the names of
ships, trains, and planes and the titles of magazines,
newspapers, books, plays, long poems, and musical
compositions.
From the library of the Queen Elizabeth he borrowed a
copy of Life, The New York Times, and Sherwood's
Roosevelt and Hopkins.
Note:
1. Do not italicize the name of a city used with the title
of a newspaper unless the name of the city is actually a
part of the newspaper's title.
The San Francisco Chronicle (Name of city is not part
of title.)
The New York Times (Name of city is part of title.)
2. Do not omit an article which forms part of the title.
Correct: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner.
224
ITALICS
-c
3. Do not add an article to a title i£ none appears in the
original work.
Correct: Victory, by Joseph Conrad.
34b. Use italics (underlining) to indicate foreign words
or phrases unless continued usage has made these
words or phrases part of the English language.
Henry was really an enfant terrible.
The dodo bird {Didus ineptus) is now extinct.
For dinner we had arroz con polio, a Spanish dish of
chicken and rice.
34c. Use italics (underlining) to refer to a word, letter,
or number spoken of as such.
You must note the difference between whether and
weather.
Your i's look exactly like Ts.
Form your 7's and 9's carefully.
I misspelled miscellaneous on the test.
EXERCISE 35
On your paper, write the number of each of the following
sentences. Beside each number, write correctly any word
or words from that sentence which should be underlined to
indicate italics or which should be placed within quotation
marks. Include the punctuation.
1. Noel Coward's play The Astonished Heart has been received
with great enthusiasm.
2. AU the way to Europe on the Nieuw Amsterdam Ethel sat
on deck reading General Clay's Decision in Germany.
3. In his lecture on Psychology of Humor the dean mentioned
an article called National Differences in Humor, which ap-
peared in The American Mercury.
4. The San Francisco Chronicle is a good newspaper.
5. Mr. Samuelson is interested in everything that happens. His
chief aim is to be au courant.
225
35ci-b
ABBREVIATIONS
6. Don't you ever dot an i in your themes?
7. We enjoyed reading Melville's novel entitled Moby Dick.
8. Henry has written a story called The Vandal.
9. The train we traveled on from Seattle was the Olympian
Hiawatha.
10. Robert Frost wrote the poem The Death of the Hired Man.
35. ABBREVIATIONS
35a. Avoid most abbreviations in formal writing.
Incorrect: I asked who the prof, of the lit. class was.
His train arrives Wed. aft.
N.J. lies across the Hudson R. from N.Y.
Correct: Mrs. Scott lives on Primrose Street.
Incorrect: Last wk. I went to see a dr. in the bldg. at Valley &
First.
Note: Even in informal writing it is best to use abbrevia-
tions sparingly, to avoid giving the impression that your
letter or theme is not worth your time or trouble.
In formal writing, do not use abbreviations except in foot-
notes and bibliographies. Especially, do not use the amper-
sand ( & ) , the abbreviation symbol for and.
Certain very common abbreviations are permissible, how-
ever; Mr., Mrs., Dr., Ph.D. used with proper names are
correct.
Incorrect: The Rev. was not at home.
Correct: The Reverend Dr. Brown was not at home.
Incorrect: Is the Mrs. here?
Correct: Is Mrs. Anderson here?
35b. Do not use contractions in formal writing.
A contraction is a form of abbreviation: a word written
with an apostrophe to indicate the omission of a letter. Such
contractions as won't, don't, cant, shouldn't, and wasn't
are usually out of place in formal writing.
In reporting dialogue, contractions are correctly used to
226
NUMBERS
3tf»a-b
convey the exact words of the speaker. Do not avoid the
use of contractions and other colloquiahsms to the extent
of making your reports of conversation seem artificial or
forced.
Note: Periods are not used with contractions or with nick-
names.
EXERCISE 36
On your paper, write the following sentences, correcting
all errors in the use of abbreviations:
1. The sts. run a and w in N. Y C, & the aves. run n & s.
2. The king of Eng. from 1485 to 1509 was Henry VII; he was
followed by Henry VIII.
3. The Pres. didn't make any speeches in Jan or Feb because
he was taking a vacation in Fla during those two months.
4. Tom. said that the dr. had refused to let him try out for
the swimming team.
5. Last mo I went to see Mrs Wilson.
6. The agent asked to see the Rev. Henry Oilman.
7. He said that he would arrive at eight a.m. on Mon.
8. I regret that I shan't be able to accept your kind invit. of
Jan. 10.
9. Ga. lies just across the Savannah R. from S C.
10. The dr also serves as a prof, at the univ. across town.
36. NUMBERS
36a. Use words to represent numerals when no more
than two words are required.
Ten; thirty-six; four hundred; eight thousand; three mil-
lion; one-third
Betty is eighteen years old.
36b. Use figures for numerals when more than two
words are required.
$9.25 1,689 208 165
227
36c-cl
NUMBERS
Note: Figures are always used with the word 'percent or
with the percent sign except at the beginning of a sentence.
36c. Usually figures are used in dates, street and
telephone numbers, chapters of a book, and groups
of numbers in the same passage.
June 14, 1856; 150 Valley View Avenue; Parkhurst 4-
1963; Chapter 6, 9, and 15; Track 4; Annex 12
The dimensions are 4 feet by 9 feet.
36d. Do not begin a sentence with a numeral.
Wrong: 30 boys are playing tennis.
Right: Thirty boys are playing tennis.
Caution:
1. Do not repeat a number in parenthetical figures except
where great accuracy is desired. ( See Section 33c. )
2. Use commas to set off figures in groups of three except
in dates and street and telephone numbers: 2,365,189;
365,107.
3. Do not use st, nd, rd, th after days of the month or
with street numbers.
Correct: May 16, 1911; February 18; 10 West 23 Street
EXERCISE 37
On your paper, write the following sentences, correcting
all errors in the use of numbers expressed in figures or in
words :
1. He says that the last time he saw the witness was on Feb-
ruary 4th, 1959.
2. His telephone number is Hemlock 4,315.
3. 11 players constitute a football team.
4. There are only 500 women in the school, but there are at
least one thousand five hundred men.
5. The Blacks have moved to a new home at 8,634 Avondale
Street.
228
NUMBERS
6. On March sixteenth his telephone number was changed to
Oregon four-six nine six two.
7. 2100 men were at work on the project when the last check
was made on April 2nd, 1959.
8. 4 boys and three girls failed the test because they had
studied diligently for only % of the term.
9. In its first year the club had eleven members; at the end
of five years it had 63; and now, after 10 years it has a total
membership of 134.
10. On March first, 1959, he received a check for $50, but he
has received only twenty-two dollars and fifty cents since
that time.
11. If I lived only 4 blocks from school, I would never be late
either.
12. Additional discussions of this topic may be found in chap-
ters three, seven, and thirteen of the same book.
13. 3 more players are all we need.
14. It is hard for me to believe that Marjorie is only 17 years old.
15. When I was sick last winter my temperature rose to one hun-
dred and five degrees.
229
The Word
Are you sure of the words you use? The following four ex-
amples, all written by high school seniors, show what can
happen when you are not careful about the words you
select.
Henry Esmond engaged in literary activities as an alihi
for his love for Beatrix.
They glanced across the beach trying to enhance the
entire scene in one glance.
I was surprised and delighted to receive your lovely gift
for my birthday. The scarf has such lovely colors that
I can hardly wait to wear it. It was lovely of you to
give it to me.
A coma must follow an introductory subordinate clause.
The writers of the preceding sentences were all having
trouble with words. The first student does not know the
meaning of the word alihi. The second is mistaken in his
use of enhance and has not listened to his sentence. Glanced,
enhance, and glance sound silly when brought together in
this way. The third student seems to know only one word
that he can use to describe something that pleases him, and
the fourth expects unconsciousness to result from the use of
a subordinate clause. These students all need work with
words.
The following sections of this book will help you to avoid
such errors in your own speaking and writing. You can get
much additional help from your dictionary.
230
USE OF THE DICTIONARY
37. USE OF THE DICTIONARY
To use words effectively you need to have at hand at least
two reference books. One is a good handbook of composition
or communication, and the other is a reliable dictionary. If
you have not already done so, now is the time to become
well acquainted with your dictionary. It will tell you these
things about a word: spelling, part(s) of speech, pronuncia-
tion, forms (tense, plural, comparative, superlative), syl-
labification, meaning, origin, synonyms, and antonyms. A
good dictionary also shows levels of usage, indicating
whether a word is slang, obsolete, colloquial, or dialect.
37a. Choose a good dictionary.
In choosing a dictionary you must be careful, for not
every dictionary is reliable. Some pocket dictionaries, for
example, are so small that they can be used only as limited
guides to spelling and pronunciation. Others, though of
good size, may have been so hurriedly and carelessly
produced that they are of little value.
When you select a dictionary, be sure that it is one which
you and your teachers can trust. Before making a final
decision about which one to use or buy, you should ask the
following questions :
1. Has this dictionary been recently published or recently
revised?
2. What are the qualifications of the people who compiled
and edited it?
3. Does the publisher have a good reputation?
4. Is it sufficiently large (approximately 100,000 entries)?
Three good dictionaries, comparable in size and price, are
The American College Dictionary (Random House, Inc.,
New York)
Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary (G. & C. Merriam
Company, Springfield, Mass.)
231
USE OF THE DICTIONARY
Webster's New World Dictionary (The World Publish-
ing Company, Cleveland)
Larger dictionaries than those listed above provide much
more information and a more complete list of words, but
they are very expensive and difficult or impossible to carry
around. Webster's New International Dictionary, The
Shorter Oxford Dictionary (2 volumes). Funk & Wagnalls'
New Standard Dictionary, and the twenty-volume New
English (Oxford) Dictionary are four such large and com-
plete dictionaries. These can usually be referred to in
libraries, offices, or classrooms.
37b. Learn how to use a dictionary.
Dictionaries differ somewhat in their systems of present-
ing material; therefore, to gain the most from your dictionary
you should have a clear idea of the method it follows. First,
turn to the table of contents to see what kinds of informa-
tion and material the editors have included. Second, look
over the preface, the introductory sections, and the supple-
mentary material at the back of the book. These will show
you what information can be found in the dictionary and
will help you understand how to use it.
Your dictionary will contain many words with which you
are unfamiHar. When you come upon these words, do not
try to guess the sounds of the letters. The pronunciation
chart in the front of the dictionary or the key at the bottom
of each page will show, with examples, the various sounds
that certain letters have.
Each page of your dictionary contains a vast amount of
useful as well as valuable information. The reproduction
you will find on page 235 of portions of a page from Web-
ster's New Collegiate Dictionary gives an example of just
how much your dictionary can tell you about words and
language in general.
232
USE OF THE DICTIONARY
37c. Learn what information a good dictionary will
supply.
Most people consult a dictionary merely to look up the
spelling, pronunciation, or meaning of certain words. How-
ever, the student who realizes that he will want to use these
words in the future studies each word he looks up. In the
long run, such study saves both time and effort.
The following entry* for the word rescue in Webster's
New Collegiate Dictionary shows the kinds of information a
good dictionary provides for most of the words it defines,
res'cue (reslcQ), v.t.; RES'CUED (-kud); res'cu-ing (-ku-Tng). [OF.
rescourre, fr. re- + escorre to move, shake, fr. L. excutere to shake
out.] 1. To free from any confinement, violence, danger, or evil.
2. Law. To take forcibly from the custody of the law. 3. To regain,
or recover, by force. — n. A rescuing; deliverance from restraint, vio-
lence, or danger; also. Law, forcible removal of a person or goods from
the custody of the law. ■ — res'cu-er (res'ku-er), n.
Syn. -Eescue, deliver, redeem, ransom, reclaim, save mean to free from
danger of death, destruction, or evil. Rescue implies release from im-
minent danger by prompt or vigorous action; deliver, release of a per-
son (usually) from confinement, temptation, slavery, etc.; redeem, re-
lease from bondage or from penalties by giving what is demanded;
rapsora, a release of one enslaved or kidnaped by paying the amount
demanded by his captor or owner; reclaim, a bringing back to a former
state or condition of someone or something abandoned or debased;
save, a rescue, deliverance, etc., and a continuance in existence or in
usefulness.
Vocabulary entry
The entry word is usually given in bold-faced type. Also
printed in this kind of type are different forms of the same
root word, especially when these new forms are another
part of speech. For example: reputed, which is an adjec-
tive, and reputedly, which is an adverb, appear in heavy
black type within the same entry.
Spelling
The entry word, given in bold-faced type, indicates the
correct spelling of a word. When a word has two or more
spellings, the preferred form is usually given first. A dic-
tionary will also help with spelling in the following cases:
* By permission. From Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, copy-
right 1949, 1951, 1953, 1956, 1958, 1959 by G. & C. Merriam Co.,
publishers of the Merriam-Webster Dictionaries.
233
1. Vocabulary Entry
The word to be defined is printed in bold-faced type. Spelling,
accent, syllabic division, capitalization, and hyphenation are shown.
2. Run-on Entry
Words closely associated with the entry word are also printed in
bold-faced type. When the meaning of the run-on can be inferred
from the meaning of the entry word, the run-on is not defined.
3. Definition
The meaning of a word is stated in its definition. Different meanings
ore usually labeled by means of numbers or letters.
4. Pronunciation
The pronunciation of the entry word is shown by means of accent
marks, diacritical marks, and phonetic respelling.
5. Part of Speech Label
6. Origin
7. Principal Parts
8. Usage Labels
Labels such as slang and colloq. (colloquial) show the level of usage
in which a word or meaning occurs.
9. Example Contexts
10. Synonym Study
11. Miscellaneous Information
Most dictionaries include entries providing information about im-
portant people, places, and events.
12. Subject Labels
Technical or scientific meanings are usually labeled according to
the field or branch of knowledge to which they belong.
13. Geographic Labels
Labels such as Brif. (British) or chiefly U.S. tell where a word or
meaning is used.
Dictionary column ( opposite ) reprinted by permission. From
Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, copyright 1949, 1951, 1953,
1956, 1958, 1959 by G. & C. Merriam Co., publishers of the Merriam-
Webster Dictionaries.
234
8
ges- tlc^P-latej(jes- tik^Q-lat) . v. i. [L. gestieulatus, past part, of gea-
iicuurri lo gesticulate, fr. gesticulus a mimic gestiiiOi diwii %l pattm*
gfitura,] To iniho gootUFOOi odpj when npoakinB. ' ges-tic^U-la^tiTa
•tic^u-la^tor (-latter), w.r"
Ti 1 Art nf irpgtif-iiiatiTig or ma.kini
i m representing passion, or enforcing argu
laitU^nf(jes-t!k^u.ld«to^rT or, esp. Brit., -ter-Tj, adj. Repre-
senting by, belongme to, or resemDling, geslidUiatlflfl.
> (jE3>huiB)4 7tJ [L. ffesf to a managing, fr. ffer ere to bear, man-
Archaic. ^Tniffpmantj rnnriiirt
i;-tj)r),ti
uJ [ML. gesjttra mode of action, fr. L. gerere, oestumX
,_^SXJl 1. Oba. Carriage; posture. :2. A niotion oi
behave, ^ct." _. ,, _ _.
Dody or limbs intended to express an idea or a passion, or to enforce
or emphasize an argument, assertion, or opinion. 3. The use of mo-
tions of the limbs or body as a mode of expression. 4. [Influenced by
F. geate.'i Something done or said merely by way of formality, cour-
tesy, or diplomacy.
V. i. To make gestures or a gesture; gesticulate. — ges'tur-er (-t5r-
er), n.
Ge-sund'heit Cge-z66nt'hTt), n. [G.] (To your) health; — a salu-
tation, as when drinking, or after a sneeze.
:et (get). ■;;. t.t past got (got) , Archaic & Dial. GAT"(gat); ■past 'part.\
GOT, or (esp. in U. S.) got'ten _(got''n); pres. part, get^ting.j [OW.
Vf.lyi..'] 1. Tu Luiiie iuto pusi.6stiiuu ut. tu ubtdin, amuiie; I'toJOTve.
Hence, in idiomatic uses: a To reach by some process, as hunting,
sounding, etc.; as, to get a fine stag; to get boUijinii h Colloq. To re-
rpi-iff. -i cfntpnrf nf; ag tn pgi" thrcA m^ntho J^ Slangi To hit; Strike;
as, the blow got him in the mouth, d Procure jg by ftlthing; as, let me
get my hat, fi To p^t-ahligh communication with, as by telephone.
n Si-ipoi'f irh''''''^' Colloq] To obtain the mastery over; as: a To over-
master; as) a bad lidbiL yws one at last, b To capture; as, the police
got thethief. C To baffle; puzzle; as, this problem gets me; also, to
annoy; irritate, d To pen; trap; hence, to bring to retribution; also, to
kill; as, to get the murderer, e In certain sports, to retire, or put out
(a play.fr) I PHI ,by making a catch. 4. With have and had: Pleonas-
JJcaiUiC'oZZog.,jto be obliged to; as, he has not to Hn it, 5. a To cause
to be iffT
b To cause
to move or be removed; as, to get him Sj^Sy. U T6 get ready: prepare;
U:!, lu get diailfil-. t>. lo induce; as, to get him to go. 7. To betake;
— reflexivebi; as, let us get us away. 8. To begetj — now of animals.
— V. i. 1. To arrive atj or bring "n — If nr itirtlf inj-n. a state, condi-
I tion, or pooition; go, to get to be ffiondajl to get free.| 2. To make ac-
quisition; tn nrnfil-
Syn. _Q«t, obtain, procure, secure, acquire, ^aic, win, earn mean to
come into possession of. Get, a very general term, may or may not
imply effort or initiative; obtain suggests the attainment of an end
sought for or hoped for; procure, effort in obtaining something for
oneself or another; secure, difficulty in obtaining and fixing that ob-
tained in one's possession or under one's control; acauire stresses addi-
tion, as by inevitable result, to something already possessed; gain
adds to obtain the implications of struggle and, usually, of material
value in the thing obtained; win adds to gain the implication of quali-
ties or circumstances that favor; earn implies a correspondence between
the effort and what one gets by effort, i —
— get alteaa of. Volloq. lo surpass.
— n. 1. An offspring (of an animal); breed. 2. Begetting; as, colts
of Man o' War's get. 3. In certain games, as lawn tennis and hand-
ball, a return of a shot that ordinarily would score for the opponent
get'-at'-a-ble (get'at'd-b'l) , adj. Possible to be reached, attained, got,
or known; approachable; accessible.
get^a-way' (get'd-waO, n. The act or fact of getting away, starting,
going, etc.
6eth'Seni'a<ne (geth.sSm'd-ne), n. [Gr. Gethsemane, Gethsemanei,
■ fr ArRm nrt^ft s^igmfl.nirm) nilprpgg] Tt H,h I hp pn'^|/^cnra ,jnfg,j^t
4 of Jerusalem, scene of the agony and arrest of Jesua — 2. {.numettmes
"lim cap.] — Ami uln^iti ui ucLabiuu uf KieaL, cbp. ufental or spiritual,
suffering. Cf. Calvary, 3.
gnt^tpr (gpfpr), n — 1 Onp wlm gptg <>. I g;^/. j a substance placed in
a vacuum tube to remove traces of free
get'np' (gSt'iip'), n. Colloq. (General composition or structure:
make-up.
ge'oiu (je'iim), n. [L., herb bennet.] = avens.
gew'gaw (gu'go), n. A showy trifle; bauble. — adj—2haay.
ioy(g5))«rfy. Seoti Conoidorabloi tolarabloi — — arfiil Scoti 0}nsid-
erably; very; pretty. ' *
geyOies, gayOies (ga'laal^du. Scot. Fairly well; very much.
ecy'aey (aI'j£i, i,V£.ilBrit\ aUo ga'zer, ge'-, usually gS'- tn sense 21,
235
USE OF THE DICTIONARY
1. The plurals of nouns are given if the noun forms its
plural in some other way than by adding s or es.
2. The comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives
and adverbs are given when adding er or est changes the
spelling of the root word, (happy — happier)
3. The past tense, past participle, and present participle
of verbs are given if there is an unusual spelling change.
4. Compound words spelled with a hyphen, as one word,
or as two words are so indicated.
Capitalization
Most good dictionaries will tell you whether a word is
usually capitalized. If an entry word is written with a capi-
tal letter, that word should always be capitalized (for ex-
ample, African). Occasionally such a word will have one
or more meanings which require a small letter. For in-
stance, in Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary the third
meaning of Afghan reads as follows:
3. [not cap] A kind of worsted blanket or wrap.
Similarly, a word that is usually written with a small
letter may have one or more meanings in which it is capi-
talized. Your dictionary may then add "(cap.)" "(often
cap.)" or "(sometimes cap.)" to these particular meanings.
Proper names (people, places) appear either in their
alphabetical position within the text or in a special section
or sections at the back of the dictionary. Where these proper
names are given depends upon the particular dictionary
you use.
Syllabification
Most dictionaries use a dot to separate syllables in the
vocabulary entry; some replace the dot with an accent mark
when a particular syllable is to be stressed. If you look back
at the entry for rescue on page 233, you will see that it is
divided into two syllables, of which the first is accented
236
USE OF THE DICTIONARY
and the second unaccented. Since all dictionaries do not
follow the same method of separating syllables, it is im-
portant to read the introductory notes in your dictionary
to see what system is being used.
Knowing how a word is syllabified is important for two
reasons. It helps you to pronounce the word, and it shows
you where you can divide a word if it is too long to be
written in full at the end of a line.
Pronunciation
How a word is pronounced depends upon two things:
where the accent is placed and how the letters are sounded.
Your dictionary has in its opening pages a chart showing the
sounds of the various letters and the markings used to indi-
cate those sounds. (See Section 38 for a complete discussion
of this topic.)
As with spelling, when two or more pronunciations of a
word are used, the more commonly used pronunciation is
generally given first. When words are pronounced differ-
ently in various localities, the variant pronunciations are
usually labeled to show where they are from. If, for exam-
ple, a pronunciation is labeled as British or Chiefly British,
this indicates that the word is spoken in this way in Eng-
land.
Part(s) of speech
For almost every entry the "part of speech" (noun, verb,
adjective, adverb, etc.) is given. After the word rescue, for
example, we find v.t., which means that it is a transitive
verb. Farther down in the entry is the label n., which indi-
cates that it can also be used as a noun. Following each
part-of-speech abbreviation, the particular meaning or
meanings are usually given, and the correct usage is ex-
plained. Whenever you are in doubt about the meaning
of a certain abbreviation, you can quickly check it in your
dictionary's table of abbreviations.
237
USE OF THE DICTIONARY
Principal parts of verbs
When a verb is irregular in some way, dictionaries spell
out the past tense, the past participle, and often the present
participle immediately after the part of speech abbreviation.
If there are alternative forms, these are given also. Our
example, rescue, gives the past tense, rescued, and the
present participle, rescuing. The "entry" word itself is the
present tense (or the present infinitive). When, as with
rescue, the past tense and the past participle have the same
form, this form is spelled out only once.
If you are unsure about whether a certain verb forms its
past tense and past participle with the usual -d, -ed, or -t
endings, your dictionary will tell you. The principal parts
of certain regular verbs are also given.
Origin
Frequently your dictionary will tell you how and where
a word came into being. It may have arisen through asso-
ciation with the name of a person, such as derrick, which
was the name of a seventeenth-century hangman; or it may
have been derived from an ancestral or foreign language.
Old English, Latin, Greek, German, and French have been
the heaviest contributors, though many other languages
have also played a role in forming our current English
vocabulary.
The history of the origin of a word is usually placed
within brackets near the beginning or at the end of a dic-
tionary entry. In the case of rescue, we are told that the
word came from the Old French word rescourre, a com-
bination of the prefix re- and escorre (meaning to move
or shake). Escorre was derived from the Latin word ex-
cutere (meaning "to shake out"). This information is often
abbreviated. For example, in the entry mentioned above,
OF. stands for "Old French" and L. stands for "Latin"; fr.
simply means "from."
238
USE OF THE DICTIONAKY
Meanings
Words have at least one, if not more, of the following
meanings: a historical meaning, a traditional meaning, a
figurative meaning, a special meaning, or a new meaning.
It is a good idea to learn the order in which meanings for
words are given in your dictionary; that is, whether the
meanings are arranged in order from oldest to newest, from
most common to most rare, or from general to specialized.
It is also important to know the significance of numbers ( 1,
2, 3) and letters (a, b, c) preceding various definitions.
This information can usually be found in the section en-
titled "Explanatory Notes."
Whenever you look up the meaning of a word, read
through the entire entry and then select the definition which
fits most closely into the context where you have come
across the word.
Words that are hyphenated and phrases that have an
idiomatic, specialized, or figurative meaning are in some
dictionaries entered separately in the regular alphabetical
listing; in others they are put under the main word. Most
dictionaries have now added common abbreviations and
foreign words and phrases to the main body of their texts.
Level (s) of usage
The mere fact that you find a word listed in the dictionary
does not mean that it is in good use or that some of its
special meanings are appropriate in current English. The
boy who proudly pointed to ain't on a page of his dic-
tionary and said "The word is in the dictionary, so it must
be right" hadn't read far enough to see how the word was
labeled. Farther along in the entry appear the words:
" — now used in dialect or illiterate speech."
Your dictionary will help you to judge the acceptability
of a word in various situations by the absence or presence
of a "restrictive label." Some words have no labels, and
239
USE OF THE DICTIONARY
Others have labels applying only to certain meanings or to
their use as a certain part of speech. All words that are
without restrictive labels of any sort may be considered
appropriate in formal English. Words labeled colloquial
are usually acceptable in informal speech or writing, but
not in formal writing.
All dictionary labels are guides to the special appropriate-
ness of word usage; generally they can be put into four
categories:
1. Geographical, which indicates a country or a section of
a country where a word or a particular meaning is com-
mon. These labels tell whether the word is used pri-
marily in such places as England, Australia, Scotland,
or the United States. They may also indicate special
regions such as New England, the South, the Southwest,
or the West. Since English is the native language of so
many people in various parts of the world, it is not sur-
prising that geographical labels are necessary.
2. Time, which tells whether a word, or one of its meanings,
is no longer used; is disappearing from use; or is still
used but has a quaint form or meaning. Obsolete, ob-
solescent, and archaic are three possible "time" labels.
When a word has no such label attached to it, the word
is in current use.
3. Subject, which indicates that a word or one of its mean-
ings belongs to a specialized department of knowledge.
Examples of this kind of label are Geom. (geometry),
Med. (medicine), Mus. (music), Naut. (nautical), and
Photog. (photography).
4. Cultural, which tells whether a word or a special use
of it is substandard or acceptable as informal English.
Colloq. (colloquial), Dial, (dialect), and Slang are three
such labels. If no "cultural" label is given in the entry,
the word and its various meanings are usually suitable
for both formal and informal writing and speaking.
240
USE OF THE DICTIONARY
Note: Since there is no one authority to decide exactly
how and where a word may be used, dictionary editors can
only use their best judgment in recording information about
words. You should not be surprised, therefore, if you dis-
cover that dictionaries sometimes disagree about the labels
they attach to certain words or meanings. Such differences
of opinion usually arise over labels that indicate levels of
usage.
For further study of the different levels of word usage
see Sections 41, 42, 44, 45, and 46.
Synonyms and antonyms
Synonyms (words that have the same or similar mean-
ings) are often included in dictionary entries; they usually
come at the end and are preceded by Syn. If you will look
back at the entry for rescue, you will note that deliver,
redeem, ransom, reclaim, and save, with their definitions,
are all given as synonyms. Though, as in this case, half a
dozen words may have similar basic definitions, each one
expresses a slightly different shade of meaning. By giving
you lists of synonyms, a dictionary not only helps you to
understand better the word itself, but also enables you to
choose a word which may come closer to expressing a
particular idea, concept, or feeling. Finding synonyms is
so important that entire volumes have been compiled to
help speakers and writers; some of these are Webster's
Dictionary of Synonijms, Crabb's English Synonyms, and
Roget's International Thesaurus of English Words.
Antonyms ( words that have opposite meanings ) can also
be found in the entries for certain words in the dictionary.
For example, when you look up the word silent in Web-
ster's New Collegiate Dictionary, you find that talkative
is given as an antonym. This listing of words which are
opposite in meaning will often help you to understand more
clearly the word you are looking up.
241
■ PRONUNCIATION
Other information
In addition to information about words as words, most
dictionaries include such useful material as notes on famous
people and places, capitals of countries and states, popula-
tions of cities, locations of colleges, tables of weights and
measures, proofreader's marks, and pictures to illustrate
certain words.
38. PRONUNCIATION
Words are mispronounced because of failure to accent
the proper syllable or failure to give the letters the proper
sound.
38a. Watch the respelling and diacritical marks.
In most dictionaries, words are phonetically respelled to
give you the accepted pronunciation. Usually marks are
placed over the vowels to indicate the sound. These are
called diacritical marks. Notice the following example of
respelling with diacritical marks.
hay'rack' ( liE'rak' )
a is pronounced like a in mate.
a is pronounced like a in mat.
At the bottom of each page of a good dictionary there is
usually a key or list of common words written with these
marks over the letters. For example:
act able dare art
ebb equal
if ice
These words are a guide to the pronunciation of letters
similarly marked. If the word that you are examining con-
tains an a marked a, the letter will be pronounced like the
a in act.
If the letter is not explained at the bottom of the dic-
242
PRONUNCIATiaN
tionary page, consult the full key on the inside cover or in
the introductory sections of the dictionary.
38b. Watch accent marks.
In your dictionary, the syllable to be stressed will be
indicated by a heavy accent mark (').
mod'el
mis'chief
If the word has two syllables that are accented, the syl-
lable which should be accented more lightly than the other
is followed by a light accent mark ( ' ) or by a double accent
mark {'').
in'tellec'tual
chor'eog'rapher
Bes"sara'bia
EXERCISE 1
The words in this list are often mispronounced. Consult
your dictionary for the correct pronunciation. Then prac-
tice saying the words. Use them in your own conversation.
absorb
absurd
accessories
corsage
cruelly
deaf
hospitable
hostile
humble
positively
preferable
ptomaine
alias
almond
diphtheria
dirigible
influence
insane
quadruplets
radiator
athlete
drowned
instead
relapse
attacked
embroidered
Italian
salmon
attorney
bicycle
biography
escape
experiment
favorite
italics
laundered
length
since
souvenir
stomach
candidate
fete
mischievous
strength
caramel
champion
chic
figure
film
forehead
municipal
museum
orchestra
strictly
suite
syrup
clique
column
contrary
corps
genuine
government
height
heroine
peony
perspiration
pianist
portiere
theater
umbrella
various
wrestle
243
SPELLING
EXERCISE 2
If you have a large reading vocabulary, you may under-
stand many words that you do not know how to pronounce.
Which of the words in the following lists are familiar to
you? Pronounce all the words in the list and check your-
self by looking up the pronunciations given in the dictionary.
Learn the correct pronunciation of any word that you have
mispronounced. Learn the meaning of any unfamiliar word
in the list. When you know the correct meaning and pro-
nunciation of all these words, try to use them in sentences
in conversation, so that they will all become parts of your
speaking vocabulary.
acumen
amenable
audacious
autopsy
bourgeois
chastisement
chiropodist
clandestine
combatant
comparable
condolence
conversant
debris
decorum
formidable
grievous
grimace
incognito
incomparable
indisputable
inexplicable
intricacy
inveigle
irreparable
irrevocable
lamentable
lingerie
patronize
quay
reptile
reputable
sonorous
subtle
syringe
ultimatum
verbatim
EXERCISE 3
Are you sure of the pronunciation of the following for-
eign words that are in common use today? Consult your
dictionary for the accepted pronunciation of each word.
au gratin boudoir finis ravioli
bona fide chaise longue per diem table d'hote
bon voyage coiffure pizza tete a tete
39. SPELLING
Most poor spelling is a matter of carelessness. Although
it is not possible to master the spelling of all words by
means of rules, a few simple rules will help a great deal.
244
SPELLING
39a. Pronounce words correctly.
1. Do not add vowels in pronouncing such words as dis-
astrous, similar, athletics, and you will not misspell them.
2. Do not omit consonants in pronouncing such words as
library and government and you will not misspell them,
3. Do not omit syllables in pronouncing such words as
miniature, sophomore, accidentally, and you will not mis-
spell them.
4. Examine carefully words that contain silent letters:
{p)sychology, {p)neumonia, g{h)ost.
EXERCISE 4
These words are often misspelled because they are mis-
pronounced. Choose the correct form in each numbered
pair and write it on your paper, with its number. Check
your choices and make another list of the words that you
misspell. Keep the list for study, adding to it other words
that you misspell in your written work or correspondence.
(See Section 39c.)
1. accidently, accidentally 16. goverment, government
2. arthritis, artharitis 17. grievious, grievous
3. asparagus, asparagrass 18. heighth, height
4. atheletics, athletics 19. hinderance, hindrance
5. attackded, attacked 20. hunerd, hundred
6. basicly, basically 21. incidentally, incidently
7. boundary, boundry 22. interduce, introduce
8. canidate, candidate 23. mischievious, mischievous
9. children, childern 24. modern, modren
10. congratulations, 25. prespiration, perspiiation
congradulations 26. pernounce, pronounce
11. cruel, crule 27. quanity, quantity
12. disasti'ous, disasterous 28. realisticly, realistically
13. drasticly, drastically 29. recognize, reconize
14. emotionally, emotionly 30. sarcasticly, sarcastically
15. Februarj', Febuary 31. satirically, satiricly
245
SPELLING
32. sophmore, sophomore 34. surprise, suprise
33. strickly, strictly 35, temperment, temperament
39b. See the words you use.
Poor spellers, especially, should pay particular attention
to the appearance of words. The most frequent error in vis-
ualizing words is mistaking one for another.
EXERCISE 5
Some mistakes are made because people confuse words
that look alike or somewhat alike. Use a dictionary to learn
the meaning and pronunciation of the following words.
Divide your class into seven groups. Let group 1 write
sentences illustrating the correct use of the first ten pairs
of words. Group 2 may take the next ten pairs, and so on.
When the groups have finished their work, check the re-
sults by reading the sentences aloud.
1. accept, except
2. access, excess
3. addition, edition
4. advise, advice
5. affect, eflFect
6. aisle, isle
7. allusion, illusion
8. ally, alley
9. altar, alter
10. anecdote, antidote
11. angle, angel
12. bath, bathe
13. berth, birth
14. break, brake
15. breath, breathe
16. bridal, bridle
17. capital, capitol
18. censor, censure
19. choose, chose
20. chord, cord
246
21. cite, site, sight
22. cloth, clothe
23. coarse, course
24. comma, coma
25. conscious, conscience
26. corps, corpse
27. costumes, customs
28. counsel, council
29. descent, decent
30. dessert, desert
31. diary, dairy
32. dual, duel'
33. eligible, illegible
34. eliminate, illuminate
35. formally, formerly
36. grate, great
37. hoarse, horse
38. hoping, hopping
39. huge, Hugh
40. idle, idol
SPELLING
41. later, latter 56. quiet, quite
42. led, lead 57. rain, reign, rein
43. lessen, lesson 58. rapped, wrapped
44. lose, loose 59. respectfully, respectively
45. mist, midst 60. scene, seen
46. moral, morale 61. shone, shown
47. nauseous, nauseated 62. sole, soul
48. passed, past 63. stationary, stationery
49. peace, piece 64. steel, steal
50. persecute, prosecute 65. surely, surly
51. personal, personnel 66. tenants, tenets
52. precede, proceed 67. thrown, throne
53. prescribe, proscribe 68. track, tract
54. principal, principle 69. trial, trail
55. prodigy, protege 70. weather, whether
EXERCISE 6
In each of tlie following sentences, choose from the pa-
rentheses the word that is required by the meaning of the
sentence. On your paper, write the number of each sen-
tence and beside it write the word that you have chosen.
1. We did not (accept, except) the invitation.
2. A tall, dark (woman, women) entered the room.
3. I do not know (whether, weather) I can go to the game.
4. Many people were (persecuted, prosecuted) for their re-
ligious beliefs in the sixteenth century,
5. Sylvia is such a (quite, quiet) girl that we never learn to
know her.
6. Do you understand the theorem about right (angles,
angels)?
7. Use a (coma, comma) to separate the items in a series.
8. Jack is much taller (then, than) I am.
9. I was so (scared, scarred) that I ran out of the house.
10. Have you bought any new (clothes, cloths) for Easter?
11. How did you (loose, lose) your money?
12. The man standing on the porch is the (principle, principal)
of my school.
13. The (sole, soul) on Bob's shoe is an inch thick.
247
SPELLING
14. The present was (wrapped, rapped) in silver paper.
15. When we arranged the Hne, Hazel was to (proceed, pre-
cede) me.
16. Please excuse Ellen for not doing her homework. She felt
(nauseous, nauseated) all last evening.
17. The business, (formally, formerly) called David Hecht Man-
ufacturing Company, will now be known as Hecht Brothers,
Inc.
18. Samuel Pepys wrote a (dairy, diary) that tells of the life
he (led, lead) in seventeenth-centiiry London.
19. The (personal, personnel) manager asked me to come to
his ofiBce for an interview.
20. The motion picture (censor, censure) refused to permit the
picture to be shown in the state.
39c. Keep your own list of mls$||»elled words.
Most people learn to spell simply by paying close atten-
tion to the appearance of words which they see in their
reading, but almost everybody has trouble with a few words
that are difficult for him. You save time by keeping a record
of the words that you misspell and making a special effort
to learn them. Your list will differ from the lists of other
students, but there are some common words that give
trouble to many people. Exercises 7, 8, and 9 contain some
of these words.
EXERCISE 7
These are simple words frequently misspelled. Be able
to write these words from dictation. Put in your own list
the words which you misspell.
absence
already
anxious
assemblies
absurd
altogether
apartment
audience
accepted
always
apparatus
awkward
across
amateur
argument
beginning
afraid
among
arithmetic
believe
all right
anxiety
arrival
biscuit
248
SPELLING
brief
foreign
misspelled
riding
business
forty
mortgage
running
bu\'ing
fourth
mountain
safety
cafeteria
friend
muscle
seize
captain
frivolous
mystery
sense
certain
fulfilled
necessary
sentence
cheerful
furniture
neighbor
separate
chief
generally
neither
shepherd
choose
governor
niece
shining
coming
grammar
nineteen
shoulder
copies
guard
ninety
similar
courtesy
hammer
ninth
sincerely
cried
handkerchief
oblige
speech
decide
heroes
occasionally
strength
definite
humorous
occurred
stretch
descend
hurried
offered
strictly
describe
imaginary
omission
studying
desirable
immediately
opportunity
summarize
despair
independent
paid
superstitious
destroy
influence
parallel
surely
develop
intellectual
partner
surprise
difficulties
invitation
peculiar
thorough
dining room
itself
perhaps
toward
disabled
jewelry
pilgrim
tragedy
disagree
judgment
pleasant
tries
divide
knowledge
possession
truly
doesn't
laboratory
potato
twelfth
during
ladies
prison
until
easily
laid
privilege
using
eighth
library
probably
usually
embarrass
lightning
pronunciation
village
enemies
loneliness
realize
villain
excellent
Iving
really
Wednesday
exercise
magazine
receive
woman
existence
marriage
repetition
women
experience
mathematics
replied
writer
familiar
meant
representative
writing
fierce
messenger
respectfully
written
fiery
minute
rhyme
yacht
249
SPELLING
EXERCISE 8
The following words are more difficult than those in Ex-
ercise 7 and have been misspelled in many students' papers.
Write the words from dictation. Add to your own list of
words any that you misspell. For rules to help you with
spelling, see Section 39d-j.
abandon
changeable
environment
optimism
abbreviate
characteristics '
equipped
originally
abundance
chauffeur
exaggerate
pamphlet
accommodate
colonel
explanation
paralyzed
accompanying
committee
extremely
participle
achievement
competent
fascinate
peasant
acquired
competition
fragrant
persistence
advertisement
conceived
grateful
persuade
agreeing
condemn
guidance
polluted
antiseptic
continuous
hygiene
practically
apology
convenient
icicle
precede
appealed
conveyed
immensely
precious
appearance
correspondence
imprisonment
preferable
appetite
couplet
inefficiency
preferred
appreciate
criticism
inevitable
prejudices
appropriate
curriculum
infinitive
prepared
architect
denying
initiative
procedure
ascent
dependent
interfere
proceed
association
disability
interpretation
professor
attendance
disappear
interruption
prominent
banana
disappointment
invariably
prosperous
beneficial
discussion
irresponsible
pursuit
bicycle
distinguish
jealous
questionnaire
brilliant
dormitories
lieutenant
recommend
bureau
economically
literature
reconcile
calendar
eliminate
luxurious
recurrence
campaign
emergencies
maintenance
religion
cancellation
eminent
miscellaneous
reminiscence
carriage
emphatic
mischievous
repaired
ceiling
encouragement
monotonous
repentance
cemetery
enthusiastic
noticeable
resemblance
250
SPELLING
restaurant
sandwich
scarcity
schedule
scheme
sergeant
serviceable
simile
spaghetti
specialty
specimen
sympathizes
temporarily
tendency
transferred
unanimous
unconscious
undesirable
undoubtedly
unnecessary
valiant
vehicle
vengeance
volume
EXERCISE 9
Some of these words will give trouble to even a good
speller. See how many of them you can spell.
abhorrence
absorbing
accustom
acknowledge
acquaintance
aeronautics
aggravate
analogous
apparent
arrangement
artillery
auctioneer
authoritative
auxiliary
barbarous
battalion
carburetor
coincidence
colloquial
comparatively
concede
conferred
conspicuous
contemptuous
deteriorate
diphtheria
dirigible
discipline
dissatisfied
dissipate
distinction
ecstasy
exhilarate
exorbitant
extraordinary
facilitate
Suillotine
harass
hesitancy
hypnosis
hypocrisy
illiterate
imitation
immigration
imminent
impetuosity
incredulous
intentionally
intercede
irrelevant
legitimate
leisure
liquefy
mercenary
mimicking
momentous
notoriety
occurrence
parliament
particularly
pasteurization
perceive
perceptible
perseverance
pervade
picnicking
pneumonia
preference
prevalent
proffered
promenade
recede
recommendation
reconciliation
representative
rescind
reservoir
rheumatism
ridiculous
sacrificing
sacrilegious
saxophone
soliloquy
specifically
tyrannically
vacuum
vaudeville
visible
39cl. Spelling of plurals.
1. The plurals of most nouns are formed by adding -s
to the singular.
desks
dogs
boys
chairs
251
SPELLING
2. Nouns ending in ch, x, z, sh, s add -es to form the
plural.
boss, bosses sash, sashes church, churches
tax, taxes glass, glasses topaz, topazes
Note: Verbs ending in ch, x, z, sh, s form the third person
singular of the present tense in this same fashion.
pushes passes fixes pinches fizzes
3. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change
y to i and add -es to form the plural.
baby, babies sky, skies
lady, ladies family, families
dairy, dairies memory, memories
Note: Notice the same change in the formation of the third
person singular, present tense, of verbs ending in y pre-
ceded by a consonant.
try, tries marry, marries
study, studies hurry, hurries
worry, worries justify, justifies
4. Words ending in ay, ey, oy add merely -5 for the
plural.
valley, valleys journey, journeys
donkey, donkeys attorney, attorneys
5. Musical terms ending in o and nouns ending in o
preceded by a vowel add -s for the plural.
studio, studios soprano, sopranos
radio, radios piano, pianos
6. Most nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant add
-es for the plural.
potato, potatoes hero, heroes
mosquito, mosquitoes Negro, Negroes
252
SPELLING
7. Many nouns ending in / add -s for the plural, but
others ending in / or fe have plurals ending in ves.
chief, chiefs wife, wives
dwarf, dwarfs wharf, wharves
reef, reefs life, lives
belief, beliefs loaf, loaves
Note: Believes is a verb.
Howard believes that he is right.
Each religion has its own beliefs.
8. Compound nouns usually add -s to the most impor-
tant word of the compound.
brother-in-law, brothers-in-law
commander in chief, commanders in chief
maid of honor, maids of honor
court-martial, courts-martial
man-of-war, men-of-war
9. Some words retain foreign plurals.
SINGULAR
PLURAL
alumnus
alumni
alumna
alumnae
analysis
analyses
crisis
crises
datum
data
parenthesis
parentheses
A few foreign words have two accepted plurals, the for-
eign plural and an English plural. In the following list, the
foreign plural form is given first for each word:
SINGULAR PLURAL
memorandum memoranda, memorandums
curriculum curricula, curriculums
index indices, indexes
radius radii, radiuses
253
SPELLING
10. Some words have the same form in both singular and
plural.
deer sheep grouse
moose
EXERCISE 10
On your paper, write tlie plural form of each of the fol-
lowing words:
agony
business
gypsy
pulley
alley
butterfly
hero
quality
ally
calf
lady
radius
alto
canoe
leaf
sky
analysis
cargo
lobby
soprano
apology
casualty
loyalty
stratum
army
cello
mosquito
sympathy
authority
century
mother-in-law
synopsis
baby
comedy
Negro
thesis
balcony
conspiracy
palace
thief
battery
crash
parenthesis
tomato
biography
crisis
pass
topaz
blackberry
crutch
penny
tornado
boss
diary
piano
tragedy
box
echo
potato
valley
buffalo
fox
process
volcano
39e. Words
containing ei
1 or i*e.
r
Write i before e
Except aftei
■ c.
Or when sounded as a.
As in neighbor and weigh.
believe
deceive
relieve
receive
grieve
perceive
siege
conceive
sieve
conceit
Exceptions often misspelled: leisure, seize, neither, weird.
254
SPELLING
39f. Final e.
Words ending in silent e usually drop the e before add-
ing a suffix beginning with a vowel ( -ing, -able, -ance, -ous ) .
resemble resemblance
believe believing, believable
interfere interfering
advise advising, advisable
hope hoping
desire desiring, desirous
care caring
argue arguing, arguable
amaze amazing
Such words keep the e before a suffix beginning with a
consonant {-lij, -ful, -merit, -ness).
pale, paleness care, careful
sincere, sincerely amaze, amazement
state, statement
Note: Exceptions often misspelled: argument, truly, dye-
ing, canoeing.
Words that end in ce or ge drop the e only when a suffix
beginning with e or i is added. This rule is easy to remem-
ber if you keep in mind that the spelling reflects the pro-
nunciation. Before e and i, the letter c is pronounced like
s and the letter g like /' (with a few exceptions, such as
tiger); but before a, o, and u the c is pronounced like k
and the g has the "hard" sound as in go. Therefore, to keep
the "soft" sound of these letters (as in peace and advan-
tage), we have to keep the e after c or g before adding
any suffix beginning with a, o, or u.
notice, noticeable change, changeable
peace, peaceable courage, courageous
outrage, outrageous advantage, advantageous
bridge, bridgeable
255
SPELLING
Like other words ending in e, these words keep the e
before a suffix beginning with a consonant.
arrange, arrangement
resource, resourceful
strange, strangeness
large, largely
Note: Exceptions are judgment and acknowledgment (pre-
ferred spellings).
EXERCISE 11
On your paper, write the words in the following list.
Then from each word form as many other words as you
can by adding suffixes {-ed, -ing, -ous, -able, -ihle, -ness,
-ance, -ment, -ly). Write these new words beside the words
from which they are formed.
adore
debate
hurry
reconcile
advantage
decide
imagine
refute
advise
desire
levy
ride
argue
dine
lonely
sale
arrange
efface
lose
secure
arrive
endure
love
sense
believe
exchange
manage
separate
blame
excite
marriage
service
change
excuse
move
silly
charge
fatigue
note
singe
come
file
peace
store
conceive
force
pronounce
trace
courage
grieve
receive
use
damage
hope
recognize
value
39g. Final y.
Words ending in y preceded by a consonant change y
to i before any suffix except one beginning with i. Be sure
to keep the y if the suffix -ing is added.
happy, happiness
study, studying
steady, steadiness
worry, worried
try, tried
ready, readied
worry, worrying
mercy, merciful
ready, readying
256
SPELLING
39h. Words ending in -ibie or -able.
There is no simple rule that will tell you how to spell
words ending in -ible or -able. If you are not sure which
spelling is correct, look the word up in a dictionary.
EXERCISE 12
On your paper write the following words, substituting
-ible or -able for the dashes. Consult a dictionary for the
correct spelling. Then put on your personal spelling list the
ones that you miss.
accept —
access —
adjust —
admiss —
advis —
allow —
avail —
combust —
commend —
compar —
compat —
comprehens —
conceiv —
contempt —
convert —
depend —
desir —
destruct —
digest —
discern —
divis —
dur —
elig—
excit —
excus —
feas —
flex—
imagin —
maccess —
incomprehens-
incred —
indispens —
inexcus —
inexpress —
infall —
insepar —
intang —
invis —
irrefut —
irresist —
liv—
lov
manage—
mov —
not —
notice —
plaus —
precept—
permiss —
sens —
suscept —
tang — ■
unbear —
valu —
vis —
vulner —
39i. Double consonant before suffix.
Double the final consonant before a suflBx which begins
with a vowel if both of the following conditions exist:
1. The word has only one syllable or is accented on the
last syllable.
2. The word ends in a single consonant preceded by a
single vowel.
ship (One syllable ending in a single consonant, p,
preceded by a single vowel, i) , shipped, shipping,
shipment (SuflBx does not begin with vowel.)
257
SPELLING
compel (Two syllables with the accent on the final one),
compelled, compelling
quarrel (Two syllables with first accented), quarreled,
quarreling
confront (Two syllables with accent on the final one. Do
not double final consonant t, because it is not preceded
by a vowel.) confronted, confronting
Note: A few words, mostly adopted from French, end in
a silent consonant preceded by a single vowel. In such
words the consonant is not doubled before a sulBx, even
though the accent falls on the last syllable.
crochet, crocheted
ricochet, ricocheting
EXERCISE 13
Write on your paper the words in this list. Then add -ed,
-ing, -ment where possible. Write the whole word each
time you add a suffix.
accuse
acquit
admire
admit
develop
disappear
disappoint
domineer
plan
prefer
put
quarrel
allot
drop
rebel
amuse
anchor
equip
exhibit
recur
refer
assent
fan
repeal
begin
benefit
brag
fit
gossip
grab
require
resent
shine
commit
compel
conceal
happen
infer
interfere
ship
stop
submit
concur
confer
jam
knit
tramp
transfer
confront
occur
travel
control
omit
trip
counsel
permit
whip
258
VOCABULAEY GROWTH
39j. Words ending in -ally.
Words ending in c do not usually add -ly alone to form
an adverb. They add -ally.
realistic
realistically
drastic
drastically
sarcastic
sarcastically
satiric
satirically
basic
basically
enthusiastic
enthusiastically
Note: Watch also accidentally and incidentally.
40. VOCABULARY GROWTH
Vocabulary growth does not mean simply learning new
words. It means also discarding worn-out expressions, using
words accurately, learning to suit the expression to the
audience and the occasion. It means making language work
so that it says exactly what you want it to say. It is im-
portant, then, to consider how you can develop a useful
vocabulary and use it wisely.
40a. Simple words for a growing vocabulary.
No list of words supplied by a book can meet all of the
needs of people who wish to understand better what they
read or hear. Make your own personal list composed of
words which you find in your reading or your Hstening and
which will be valuable to you. Use new words frequently
for several days in order to fix them in your memory.
Although nothing can take the place of a personal list,
it is sometimes interesting to examine some common words
to see whether they are a part of your vocabulary.
EXERCISE 14
Do you know the meaning of the words italicized in the
following paragraph? Consult your dictionary for the words
that are not clear to you. Be prepared to explain their mean-
ing in the paragraph.
An eminent scholar, known for his eccentricity, complained
259
40b
VOCABULARY GROWTH
recently that he had received a number of anonymous letters
and had been approached on the street by an ungainly creature
who made stiange grimaces and gestures while threatening the
learned man. For a time the scholar had ignored the letters be-
cause people of refinement do not write anonymous communica-
tions or pay any attention to them; but the notes came so
frequently that he was annoyed by their insolence and decided
to try to discover the writer of such malicious material. A
magistrate who was a neighbor of the scholar liked to do a
little sleuthing as an avocation. He agreed to work with the
scholar at no pecuniary gain. Together they examined the notes
and made conclusions. Because the evidence at first seemed
obscure, the men had to display genuine acuteness in working
out the problem; but they finally decided to accuse another
neighbor, an uncouth fellow known in the village as a misan-
thrope. When this man was threatened with a libel suit, he was
frightened, and the scholar received no more anonymous mail.
40b. Words from newspapers and magazines^
Do you know what a bipartisan foreign policy is?
When the paper speaks of a gubernatorial campaign,
what is happening?
The man was tried for perjury. What had he done?
The italicized words in the preceding sentences appear
regularly in newspapers. A democratic government depends
for its success upon literate citizens, people who know what
is going on. Learn the words that are used frequently in the
newspapers and magazines.
EXERCISE 15
These words appear regularly in everyday reading. On
your paper write the words in the first list. Then write
opposite each word the number of the group of words in
the second column that defines it.
Example:
1. arbitration 3
260
VOCABULARY GROWTH
1. arbitration
2. collaboration
3. facilitate
4. agrarian
5. reciprocity
6. deteriorate
7. dilemma
8. strategy
9. prejudice
10. amphibious
11. contemporary
12. reparations
13. liaison
14. autonomous
15. fraudulent
40c
working with another
make easier
settling a dispute by discussing and
coming to an agreement
mutual exchange
become worse
having to do with farm matters
dishonest, cheating
8. belonging to the same time
9. compensation by a defeated nation
for damage after a war
10. contact between persons or groups
working together
11. skillful management to get the
better of an opponent
12. self-governing, independent
13. a diflficult or embarrassing situation
14. capable of working on both land
and water
15. preconceived opinion
EXERCISE 16
Choose fifteen interesting words from your newspaper
and write a definition for each. Arrange words and defini-
tions in two lists as in Exercise 15 and see whether your
classmates can match them.
40c. Business words.
Everybody needs to know some business terms in order
to manage his afiFairs.
EXERCISE 17
Here are some common words that will be useful. Match
each word and its meaning as you did in Exercise 15.
1. disbursements
2. commodity
3. allocate
1. an addition to a will
2. to reduce, diminish
3. decrease in value through use
261
40cl
4. codicil
5. curtail
6. amortization
7. assets
8. depreciation
9. dividend
10. discount
11. reimburse
12. deficit
13. prepaid
14. invoice
VOCABULARY GROWTH
4. to make payment for expense or
loss
5. sum of money paid to shareholders
in a corporation
6. amount subtracted from a bill for
prompt payment or other special
reason
7. the amount by which a sum of
money is short
8. security pledged for payment of a
loan
9. an article of trade
10. property or cash possessed by a
company
11. paid before material is sent
12. to set apart for a special purpose
13. an itemized bill
14. gradual payment of a debt before
the due date
15. amounts paid out
15. collateral
40d. Foreign words in everyday use.
Long ago, the Romans had a little proverb that said:
De gustibus non est disputandiim. (There is no disputing
about tastes.)
The French say:
Chacun a son gout. (Everyone to his own taste.)
But the Spaniards, with their own sense of humor, say:
Cado loco a su tema. (Every madman to his own obses-
sion.)
Our language has been enriched by adopting from other
languages expressions like these. Many terms used in every-
day living are from Latin, French, Spanish, Italian, or Ger-
man.
262
VOCABULARY GROWTH
EXERCISE 18
Write a sentence containing each of the following words
or abbreviations and then read the sentence aloud with
the correct pronunciation. If you have trouble, consult your
dictionary.
A.D.
espionage
minestrone
a la carte
ex officio
patio
a la mode
finis
post mortem
alma mater
gauche
pronto
B.C.
gringo
repondez s'il vous plait
cabana
hombre
(R.S.V.P.)
connoisseur
hors d'oeuvres
rodeo
debris
kindergarten
siesta
demitasse
laissez faire
sombrero
ennui
manana
tamale
entree
mantilla
wanderlust
EXERCISE 19
These foreign words are more difficult than the words in
Exercise 18. Follow the directions in Exercise 18.
ad infinitum
ad nauseam
agent provocateur
al fresco
antipasto
au courant
carte blanche
coup d'etat
40e. Medical terms.
crepe suzette
esprit de corps
fait accompli
habeas corpus
junta
maitre d'hotel
mare nostrum
milieu
noblesse oblige
persona non grata
peseta
piece de resistance
savoir faire
savoir vivre
summa cum laude
verbatim
If your doctor tells you that you have laryngitis, what
has happened to you?
What should you do if you need a tonsillectomy?
It is often necessary to know a few medical terms in
order to understand what your doctor tells you.
263
40f-g
VOCABULARY GROWTH
EXERCISE 20
Explain the meaning of the following words:
allergy
amnesia
appendectomy
arteriosclerosis
metatarsal
insomnia
neurosis
sinusitis
anemia
anesthetic
astigmatism
benign
malignant
myopia
therapy
toxic
40f. Musical terms.
Can you read your program at a concert or the newspaper
report of a musical event?
EXERCISE 21
What do these terms mean? Pronounce them correctly.
a cappella
coloratura
leitmotif
recitative
acoustics
con brio
medley
scherzo
allegro
concerto
opera bouffe
sonata
andante
counterpoint
opus
mezzo-soprano
aria
crescendo
overture
staccato
atonal
harmony
percussion
symphony
cadenza
instrumentation
pitch
syncopation
40g. Scientific termSt,
Scientific terms appear in newspaper and magazine arti-
cles dealing with scientific subjects. Can you understand
such terms? The following exercise may help you. As you
meet unfamiliar scientific terms in your reading, find out
their meaning and pronunciation and add the words to
your personal vocabulary list.
EXERCISE 22
Write sentences using these words. Read the sentences
aloud, pronouncing the words correctly.
amoeba
bisect
deciduous
horticulture
bacillus
carnivorous
dissect
perennial
bacteria
combustion
erosion
saturated
264
VOCABULARY GROWTH
40h. Art words.
40h-i
Here are a few words used in discussions of art. Perhaps
your art teacher wHl help you to increase the hst.
caricature
ceramics
chiaroscuro
cubism
etching
impressionism
pastel
symmetry
40i. Literary terms.
The following are words which you may need if you are
going to talk intelligently about literature. Do you know
their meanings?
allegoiy
denouement
lyric
realism
analogy
discourse
nuance
romanticism
blank verse
elegy
pathos
satire
classic
epic
plot
sonnet
couplet
farce
protagonist
symbol
40j. Words for the ambitious.
How good is your vocabulary? Test it by seeing ho\\^
many of the words in the following exercises you know.
EXERCISE 23
On your paper, write the words in the first column. Then
place opposite each word the number of the definition
which you think suits that word. Write sentences of your
own in which you use these words.
1. abscond
2. adamant
3. adroitly
4. ambidextrous
5. ameliorate
6. antipathy
7. apothegm
8. assiduous
9. bilingual
10. cacophony
1. able to use both hands equally well
2. improve
3. to run away to avoid legal process
4. constant in application
5. unyielding
6. able to speak two languages
7. cleverly
8. harsh sound
9. a short, pithy saying
10. dislike
265
40
VOCABULARY GROWTH
EXERCISE 24
Follow the directions in Exercise 23.
1. denouement
2. calumny
3. commensurate
4. complicity
5. concatenation
6. cupidity
7. cynosure
8. discrepancy
9. edifying
10. elucidate
11. encomium
12. ephemeral
13. execrable
14. facihtate
15. fallacious
16. fatuous
17. ghetto
18. grandiose
19. heretic
20. homogeneous
1. great desire to possess something
2. formal expression of praise
3. abominable
4. foolish
5. consisting of similar parts or ele-
ments
6. lasting only a short time
7. equal or proportionate in measure
or extent
8. partnership in wrongdoing
9. state of being linked together
10. the final outcome of a plot or of a
complicated situation
11. something that strongly attracts
attention
12. deviation, variance
13. instructing and improving
14. slander
15. a person who has religious beliefs
contrary to the accepted form
16. affectedly grand
17. make clear
18. a place in which Jews have been
required to live
19. make easy
20. logically unsound
EXERCISE 25
Follow the directions in Exercise 23.
1. imminent
2. incognito
3. incongruous
4. ingenuous
5. innocuous
266
1. out of keeping, not harmonious in
character
2. essentially, by nature
3. artless, innocent
4. mournful
5. a hater of mankind
VOCABULARY GROWTH
40
6.
intrepid
6.
likely to occur at any moment
7.
intrinsically
7.
a formal expression of great praise
8.
invective
8.
disgrace or reproach incurred by
conduct considered shameful
9.
lugubrious
9.
having one's identity concealed
10.
mendacious
10.
coolly unconcerned
11.
meticulous
11.
characterized by show
12.
misanthrope
12.
a theory that identifies God and
nature
13.
misogynist
13.
cowardly
14.
nebulous
14.
faithless, treacherous
15.
nonchalant
15.
policy of adapting one's actions to
whatever circumstances are present
16.
onerous
16.
impractical, visionary
17.
opportunism
17.
not harmful
18.
opprobrium
18.
careful about small details
19.
ostentatious
19.
fearless
20.
panegyric
20.
hater of women
21.
pantheism
21.
vague, hazy, cloudy
22.
perfidious
22.
not easily excited
23.
phlegmatic
23.
lying
24.
pusillanimous
24.
an utterance of violent reproach or
accusation
25.
quixotic
25.
burdensome
EXERCISE 26
Follow the directions in Exercise 23.
1.
rationalize
1.
done by stealth
2.
3.
4.
5.
sanguinary
sophistry
supercilious
surreptitious
2.
3.
4.
5.
waver
bullying, threatening
great technical skill
to invent an acceptable explanation
for behavior
6.
7.
8.
truculent
ubiquitous
vacillate
6.
7.
8.
bloody
haughtily disdainful
experienced in place of another
9.
LO.
vicarious
virtuosity
9.
10.
present everywhere
false argument
267
41-42
PROVINCIALISMS
41. PROVINCIALISMS
When you work to develop a vocabulary, you must not
only learn new words, but discard old ones that interfere
with accurate, effective speech and writing.
A fundamental requirement of formal usage is that words
must be in national, not merely sectional, use. A provin-
cialism, or localism, is a word or phrase used and under-
stood in only a particular section or region of the country.
Such words are difficult to detect because a writer or
speaker may have come to accept them as reputable and
to assume that they are nationally understood since he
himself has known them from childhood. Some parts of
the United States are especially rich in colorful localisms
which add flavor to speech but which may not be imme-
diately intelligible in other areas. Such localisms are ap-
propriate in informal writing and conversation but should
usually be avoided in formal writing. Examples: chunk and
chuck for throw; tote for carry; tote (noun) for load; poke
for bog or sack; fatback for bacon; bunk into for bump
into; reckon for think or suppose; choose for wish; draw
for gully; to home for at home; loco for crazy.
EXERCISE 27
Make a list of localisms heard in your neighborhood or
vicinity. Then decide which ones should be avoided in
your formal writing.
42. COLLOQUIALISMS
A colloquialism is a conversational expression which is
permissible in an easy, informal st\'le of writing and speak-
ing. Colloquialisms are not appropriate in formal writing or
speaking.
Dictionaries mark words as colloquial (Colloq.) when
in the judgment of the editors they are more common in
speech than in writing or more appropriate to informal
268
IDIOMS
than to formal discourse. Since editors differ in the inter-
pretations of their findings, the label colloquial may apply
to many kinds of words. All contractions, for example, may
be considered "respectable" colloquialisms, whereas some
other kinds should be guarded against even in informal
writing.
The test for the use of colloquialisms is appropriateness.
There is no objective test or exact rule to enable you to
determine when colloquialisms may be used. Certainly it
is better to employ them than to avoid them and make your
writing seem artificial and awkward. But in formal, well-
planned writing they should be avoided unless they are
deliberately used to achieve some stylistic effect. Consult
the dictionary to determine whether a word is considered
colloquial.
Examples of colloquialisms:
ad flop
along side of goner (a person lost or dead)
angel (financial backer) gumption
auto in back of
brass tacks (facts) phone
cute show up
don't take a try at
fizzle (to faU) try and
flabbergast won't
43. IDIOMS
Idioms are forms of expression peculiar to a language.
Many idioms defy grammatical analysis; but because they
are sanctioned by current usage, they are looked upon as
correct. Idioms correctly used make speech and writing
vigorous and picturesque.
Although idioms often cannot be analyzed grammatically,
the careful writer will not therefore assume that he can
change them as he pleases. A good dictionary will contain
a statement of idiomatic usage following words which need
269
IDIOMS
such explanation. Many idioms involve the use of preposi-
tions. A few examples of idioms follow:
UNIDIOMATIC
cannot help but talk
comply to
die with (a disease)
different than
doubt if
graduated (high school)
identical to
listen at
out loud
plan on going
providing that
to home
wait on
UDIOMATIC
cannot help talking
compl)' with
die of
different from
doubt whether, doubt that
graduated from (high school)
identical with
listen to
aloud
plan to go
provided that
at home
wait for (to await)
Certain words combine with different prepositions to ex-
press different meanings.
Examples:
{to a proposal
on a plan
with a person
compare
'to something similar
with something dissimilar
for a principle
contend ■< with a person
against an obstacle
differ
impatient
with a person
from something else
about or over a question
for something desired
with someone else
of restraint
at someone's conduct
270
IDIOMS
(for something done
rewarded •! with a gift
I by a person
In regard to (not in regards to)
The Blank, Rischler Company agreed to our suggestion
to begin the work on January 1.
Mr. Southern diflFers with you. He thinks that we are
not ready for expansion.
This plan differs from the first one in many details.
The Hudson River has often been compared to the
Rhine for its beauty.
When I was on the Rhine, I compared it with the
Hudson and concluded that it has nothing the Hudson
lacks except castles.
Note: In casual English, it is all right to use a preposition
at the end of a sentence. Sometimes it is acceptable even
in formal English, especially in certain idiomatic expres-
sions in which a preposition is retained when the verb be-
comes passive, with the object of the preposition as its
subject.
Active: We cannot think of such a thing.
Passive: Such a thing is not to be thought of.
Active: Someone laughed at him.
Passive: He hated to be laughed at.
When you use a preposition at the end of a sentence,
make sure that it is not an unnecessary preposition.
Right: What are you writing with?
Wrong: Where are you going to?
Right: Where are you going?
EXERCISE 28
On your paper, write the number of each of the follow-
ing sentences. Beside the number, write the preposition
that should be supplied for that sentence. Consult your
dictionary if you have difficulty.
271
IDIOMS
1. This letter means that he will accede your request.
2. I doubt I can go with you.
3. The color of your hat is similar to that of your gloves but
is not identical it.
4. The manager did not agree my suggestion for improv-
ing the filing system.
5. Now that her salary has been increased, Hilda is com-
pletely independent her relatives.
6. This suitcase differs that one only in lengtli.
7. Mrs. Robbins will be home this afternoon.
8. Do you think the snowstorm will prevent him coming
tonight?
9. The new family next door is very different the one that
lived there before.
10. Jack is now reconciled living on a small salary.
11. I didn't think him capable doing such a thing.
12. Jane is too careless her appearance.
EXERCISE 29
On your paper, write correctly each of the following
sentences :
1. What kind of a car did you bu)'?
2. I can't help but think that Jane has caused all the trouble.
3. When our parents graduated high school, education was
different than it is now.
4. We didn't plan on going to the shore so early.
5. If we have to wait on him much longer, we shall be late.
6. I doubt if you will get any help from Ellen, because she is
not to home very often.
7. I differ from George about holding a new club election right
now.
8. I cannot help but listen when you practice your part out
loud.
9. I thought all along that Bill was planning on going with us.
10. I doubt if you can ever find a jacket identical to your old
one.
272
IMPROPRIETIES
44. VULGARISMS
Vulgarisms (also called "barbarisms" and "substandard"
or "illiterate expressions") are words and phrases not ac-
cepted in either colloquial or formal language. Since they
are used by uneducated speakers, such expressions are
always to be avoided in writing unless you put them into
the dialogue of people you are characterizing as unedu-
cated. The following words and phrases should be guarded
against:
hadn't ought, mistakened, this here, anywheres, couldn't
of, hisself, being as, concertize, vacationize, still and
all, coronated
45. IMPROPRIETIES
Improprieties are recognized English words which are
misused in function or meaning. The word that constitutes
an impropriety is acceptable; it is its misuse which causes
an error in diction.
45a. Avoid improprieties in grammatical function.
A word may be transferred from one part of speech to
another, but the careful writer will not employ such a word
in its new function unless it is sanctioned by good use.
Examples of improprieties in function:
Verbs misused as nouns:
eats, an invite, a fix, a think, a combine (meaning "com-
bination" )
Nouns misused as verbs:
to suspicion, to suicide
Adjectives misused as adverbs:
real pretty, sure pleased, some tall
Prepositions misused as conjunctions:
like for as, except for unless
Avoid: We served eats.
I suspicioned that the plan would fail.
273
SLANG
Use: We served food.
I suspected that the plan would fail. — -
45b. Avoid improprieties in meaning.
Most improprieties in meaning are caused by the misuse
of words similar in form. For example, words in the fol-
lowing groups are frequently misused:
accept, except formally, formerly
affect, effect healthful, healthy
all ready, already ingenious, ingenuous
all together, altogether irritate, aggravate
allusion, illusion later, latter
avenge, revenge liable, likely
complement, compliment noted, notorious
council, counsel party, person
disinterested, uninterested principal, principle
elude, allude respectfully, respectively
expect, suspect stationary, stationery
farther, further than, then
EXERCISE 30
1. Use correctly in sentences each of the groups of words
listed in Section 45b.
2. Use each of the following words correctly in a sen-
tence: continual, creditable, practicable, apt, continuous,
vocation, consul, can, may, conscious, conscience.
46. SLANG
Slang is a particular kind of vulgarism. Formerly the
term was applied to the cant of gypsies, beggars, and
thieves, or to the jargon of any particular class of society.
Now slang is defined as language which consists of widely
current terms having a forced or fantastic meaning, or dis-
playing eccentricity. It is sometimes very colorful and force-
ful, but it is often used with such crudeness that it may
offend people who are careful of their choice of words and
cause the person who uses it to be considered vulgar.
274
TRITENESS
Note these typical slang expressions:
grub, to get away with it, bang-up, to get pinched, a bum
steer, to put it across, so what, spuds, take the count,
going some, put on the dog, have a heart, a lemon,
attaboy, cut no ice, fall for it, hard-boiled, get the goods
on him, talk through your hat, goofy, wacky, off his nut,
squawk, dead pan, crab, let it ride, you said it, to get hep,
a rat race, on the beam, sourpuss, cockeyed, good egg,
mike, croak (meaning "to die" or "to kill"), that's for
the birds, heap (car), egghead, square, drag
47. TRITENESS
How many times have you heard the following speech?
On behalf of the team, I should like to present to Mr.
Anderson this small token of our appreciation.
This is a trite speech. The first time that it was used, it
was acceptable; but the person who uses it now shows
clearly that he is lazy or unwilling to think for himself.
Trite expressions are expressions that have been used too
often. Avoid them. Make your language fresh and interest-
ing. Here are some expressions to avoid. You will probably
notice many other trite expressions in your reading, in public
speeches, or in conversations.
abreast of the times better half
add insult to injury bigger and better
all the luck in the world bitter end
all work and no play bolt out of the blue
along these lines brown as a berry (or a nut)
are in receipt of budding genius
as big as a house busy as a bee
as luck would have it by and large
at a loss for words by leaps and bounds
at an early date captain of industry
at your earliest convenience center of attraction
be that as it may checkered career
be there with bells on clinging vine
275
TRITENESS
cold as ice
conspicuous by his absence
deadly earnest
deem it an honor and a privi-
lege
deepest gratitude
depths of despair
do justice to a dinner
doomed to disappointment
each and every
esteem it a great honor
exception proves the rule
fair sex
festive occasion
few and far between
filthy lucre
first and foremost
fools rush in
goes without saying
good time was had by all
great open spaces
green with envy
heartfelt thanks
hit an all-time low
hungry as a bear
ignorance is bliss
in this day and age
irony of fate
last but not least
level best
makes the world a better
place to live in
meets the eye
method in his madness
milestone on the road of life
needs no introduction
nipped in the bud
none the worse for wear
out of a clear sky
proud possessor
psychological moment
red as a rose
ripe old age
shot heard around the world
take this opportunity
the good life
the weaker sex
the worse for wear
time marches on
time of my life
tired but happy
to make a long story short
too full for utterance
words fail to express
Be careful to avoid trite ideas as well as trite expressions:
The gift was exactly what I wanted.
I'll think of you every time I wear it.
Do not hesitate to call on me.
All good things must come to an end.
EXERCISE 31
Criticize the English in the following sentences. Which
expressions would be acceptable in casual English? Which
are trite?
276
TRITENESS
1. Everybody had a ball at the picnic last night. How come you
didn't show up?
2. I'd never have won if each and every one of you hadn't helped
me.
3. I suspicioned that you weren't coming when I saw Joan with
another guy.
4. Now, last but not least, we're happy to present the Nairobi
Trio.
5. Well, keep in touch.
EXERCISE 32
Follow the directions in Exercise 31.
1. When I reach a ripe old age, I want to get away from the
city and go to the wide open spaces.
2. If this inflation keeps on, you will be down and out when
you reach that ripe old age.
3. It's certainly true that prices are going up by leaps and
bounds. I've worked like a dog and have nothing to show for
it.
4. By and large, I think it's wacky to worry in this day and age.
5. Maybe you're right, but trouble often comes out of a clear
sky; and I think we should be prepared for a rainy day.
EXERCISE 33
Criticize the following speech. Then write an introduction
of a speaker. Try to make it free of trite ideas as well as
trite expressions. Avoid tracing the speaker's background
from high school to the present. Select only the details that
will show why his speech should be interesting or valuable
to the audience that he is about to address.
This morning we seniors are in school for the last time. Soon
we shall be sailing the ship of life into the future. I deem it an
honor and a privilege to present to you as our speaker, one who
needs no introduction. It is fitting that Dr. Edward Benson should
speak to us on this occasion. Before I present him to you, I
should like to offer him our deepest gratitude for taking time out
of a busy day to join us.
277
JARGON
48. JARGON
Some inexperienced writers think that they vriil improve
their writing by using long words, elaborate expressions, or
technical words understood only by the member of a spe-
cial trade or profession. Actually, the best writing is sim-
ple, direct, clear. Instead of "No," the writer of jargon says,
"The answer is in the negative."
Government pamphlets and letters and reports of econ-
omists and engineers could often be improved by the
omission of jargon. Recently an economist who wished to
tell Congress that part of the farm problem is that there
are too many farmers said:
"The hard core of the United States farm problem is the
surplus of human effort committed to farming."
JARGON CLEAR WRITING
Pursue his tasks with great diligence Work hard
Unfavorable conditions Bad weather
Enter into the state of matrimony Get married
Business people are often users of jargon. They should
avoid expressions such as along the line of, with regard to,
attached hereto, in connection with, enclosed herewith
please find. ( See Section 95. )
Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch, in his book On the Art of
Writing, says the jargoneer makes use of "vague, woolly,
abstract nouns rather than concrete ones." Quiller-Couch
probably had in mind words like case, instance, character,
nature, condition, persuasion, degree, quality, personality,
asset, thing, state, and factor.
Another trick of jargon which Quiller-Couch discusses is
"elegant variation," an unwillingness to repeat a word once
it has been used. Sports writers often practice elegant var-
iation. To avoid repeating the word football, some writers
resort to pigskin or oval. Similarly, such writers strain to
invent descriptive nicknames in order to avoid repeating
278
JARGON
the name of the person they are writing about. Joe Louis,
the former heavyweight champion, was known as "The
Brown Bomber" and "The Detroit Menace." At best ele-
gant variation sounds afiFected; at worst it sounds absurd.
It is preferable to repeat a word or a name as often as
necessary. Often, of course, a personal pronoun can be
used.
EXERCISE 34
On your paper, rewrite the following sentences, improv-
ing the wording. Substitute other words for jargon.
1. The greatest factor in his success was that he had reached
man's estate in a healthy physical condition.
2. In the case of those not present, the nature of their offense
will be judged as of a different character.
3. Ruth was one of baseball's greatest assets. He possessed
ability to an unusual degree, and thousands of human beings
in the environs of New York City thought that no one could
ever rival the great Bambino. But by the very nature of
things, the Bronx Behemoth entered a declining state over
a long period of years. Later the fickle fans were of the
persuasion that, with regard to baseball ability, Joe DiMaggio,
the former San Francisco star, was of the same stature as the
former home-run king.
4. In this instance, his answer in the affirmative was a distinct
asset to our business.
5. He was a serious type of student who wished to major in
the field of chemistry.
6. Illumination is required to be extinguished before this build-
ing is closed for the night.
EXERCISE 35
On your paper, rewrite this business letter in simple,
straightforward English. (See Section 95.)
Dear Mrs. Jenkins:
In reply to your letter of January 10 with regard to mer-
279
CONCRETE AND SPECIFIC WORDS
chandise along the line of slip covers, we are enclosing here-
with samples of three types of materials. We should like to
advise that our representative will be in your district on Mon-
day, and we are of the opinion that he will be able to assist
you re the slip covers as per your request.
Thanking you for your inquiry, we beg to remain
Veiy truly yours,
J. A. Henderson
49. CONCRETE AND SPECIFIC WORDS
Words have an exact meaning (denotation) and a sug-
gested or implied meaning (connotation). The denotation
of the word father is male parent; the connotation may be
the kind playmate of my boyhood, the person who always
gave me good advice, the stingy fellow who never allowed
me enough spending money, or many other meanings, de-
pending upon the experience of the individual who reads
or hears the word. In addition to their special connotations
for different people, words also have connotations that are
understood by nearly everybody. For example, both cabin
and hovel are applied to a small, rudely built house; but
cabin may suggest vacations at the seashore or in the moun-
tains, whereas hovel always implies poverty and dilapida-
tion.
Some words are richer in connotative values than others;
fragrance and aroma, for instance, suggest more specific
ideas than smell or odor. If you are writing vigorous prose
that seeks some response in imagination, words rich in
connotation will help. If, however, you are writing a re-
port of a committee activity or a laboratory experiment,
the tone should be more objective. You are then concerned
with clarity, rather than effect.
Concrete words, however, are important in any kind of
writing.
280
CONCRETE AND SPECIFIC WORDS
49a. Use specific rather than general words.
Walk is a general word. It gives no definite picture.
There are many ways of saying walk:
strut, hobble, stumble, stagger, glide, creep, scurry,
stroll, march
These are specific words. Because they show a special
way of walking, these words are more descriptive than the
general word walk.
Note: Do not use a specific word like stumble for walk
unless that is precisely what you mean. Walk is the word
to use if you do not wish to call attention to the way a
person is walking.
EXERCISE 36
Identify the specific words in the following list.
house complain boat dawdle
laugh nag (verb) guffaw slouch (verb)
freighter delay g^^P (verb) drink (verb)
EXERCISE 37
For each of the words in the following list, write three
specific words.
Example: opening — window, crevice, peephole
shoes said go food
car went old beverage
EXERCISE 38
On one of the following topics, v^ite a paragraph in
which you use specific words:
The Final Touchdown A Blind Date
A House on the Shore An Old-fashioned Garden
Enter the Ghost My First Date
The Beach Party
281
il^^^l^Mi^^^lj^ "fine" whiting
49b. Use words that express your meaning exactly.
Distinguish between words whose meanings are similar
or related and make sure you are using the one that says
exactly what you mean. Your dictionary can often help you
make these distinctions. If the word you have in mind is
not exactly the word you need, your dictionary may offer
a list of synonyms with an explanation of the shade of
meaning expressed by each one; or it may refer you to
another word under which such a list is given. In this way
you can learn, for example, that an automobile mechanic
uses tools, a farmer uses implements, and a surgeon uses
instrmnents.
EXERCISE 39
What is the difference in meaning of the words in each
of the following groups?
argue, debate, discuss
dislike, disgust, distaste
feature, characteristic, peculiarity
color, hue, tinge, shade
50. "FINE" WRITING
"Fine" writing is writing that is affected.
50a. Avoid "fine" writing.
The use of direct, simple words to gain effectiveness in
writing is mentioned in Section 48. Avoid artificiality, pre-
dentiousness, and affectation.
50b. Use short words.
Short words are usually clearer than long ones. There
is a story of a plumber who once wrote to an agency of
the United States government that he had found hydro-
chloric acid good for cleaning out pipes. A bureaucrat
replied: "The efficiency of hydrochloric acid is indispu-
282
FINE WRITING
table, but the corrosive residue is incompatible with metallic
permanence."
The plumber responded that he was delighted to know
that the agency agreed with him. After a further exchange
of letters, the government official finally wrote what he
should have written the first time: "Don't use hydrochloric
acid. It eats the inside out of pipes."
Too many long words will make a piece of writing seem
heavy or pedantic. A series of long words will also tend
to interrupt the smooth, even flow of a sentence. Compare
the effect of the following sentences:
Long words: After liquidating his indebtedness, he was still in
possession of sufficient funds to establish a small
commercial enterprise.
Short words: After paying his debts, he still had enough money
to set up a small business.
This does not mean that long words should never be
used. A writer with a mature style will, of course, use
many long words; but he will generally use them only to
express particular meanings for which shorter words may
not exist. There are no short words, for example, to ex-
press the exact meanings of jurisdiction, epilogue, or ap-
pendicitis. But compare the following: repast and meal;
retire and go to bed; epistle and letter; ratiocinate and
think; pulchritude and beauty; comestibles and food; ob-
sequies and funeral. In these expressions, the simple words
express quite clearly what the writer wishes to say and
are in better taste.
50c. Use modifiers intelligently.
Too many adjectives or adverbs make a style seem over-
done. Notice the overuse of modifiers in the following ex-
cerpt from the description of a wedding:
As she swept gracefully down the flower-bordered aisle
283
FINE WEITING
of the old, freshly painted church, the bride smiled
graciously and kindly into the eyes of her handsome,
stalwart husband.
50d. Be careful in using foreign expressions.
A bit of Latin or French sometimes seems impressive,
and the inexperienced writer may be tempted to sprinkle
his writing with foreign phrases. Actually they are osten-
tatious and should be avoided except in the very few in-
stances when there is no English equivalent. Businessmen
sometimes talk about per diem pay when they mean a
day's pay, or they ship things via when they mean by.
Other people talk of a faux pas when they mean a mistake.
EXERCISE 40
Rewrite this paragraph in simple language:
Yesterday at high noon Miss Adrienne Sinclair, the lovely
youngest daughter of Mr. Gustav Ober Sinclair, was given in
marriage to her handsome college classmate, Mr. Spencer Hor-
ston-Palmer. The exquisite, radiant bride was begowned in
shimmering white satin adorned with old family lace of the
utmost delicacy. Her hands, enveloped in spotless white kid,
bore a white prayer book, symbol of purity, from which show-
ered fragile lilies of the valley. As the lovely bride moved to-
ward the sanctum sanctorum, she was followed closely by three
stunning attendants wearing pale orchid organdy. The tender
strains of the wedding march were presented by the talented
organist, Eric Feld.
EXERCISE 41
The following letter of eighty-three words can be written
in clear, simple language in thirty words. See how close
to that number you can come in your revision.
Dear Sir:
We are in receipt of your favor of the tenth instant in re
order for five television sets and wish to advise that according
284
WORDINESS
Sid
to our records your order was shipped on Oct. 19 via Railway
Express. In as much as the order was carefully checked on this
end, we would ask you to wait for three days. If the material
has not been received in that time, we would ask that you use
the card attached hereto and give us due notice.
51. WORDINESS
Wordiness, or redundancy, is the use of more words than
are needed.
To be effective, writing should be as economical as
possible. This does not mean that it must be sketchy or
that essential words can be omitted.
Wrong: Shipped order today.
Right: We shipped your order today.
51a. Do not use more words than are necessary.
I regret that you were not supplied with the necessary
information requested by you in order to assure you
of the safest means of traveling to reach Cimarron.
(Verbose; 28 words)
I regret that you did not receive information concerning
the safest means of reaching Cimarron. (Economical;
15 words)
Be careful not to say the same thing twice.
Redundant: He operates a large 800-acre farm.
Better: He operates an 800-acre farm.
Redundant: The bonds were burned and reduced to ashes.
Better: The bonds were burned.
The bonds were reduced to ashes.
WORDY BETTER
repeat again repeat
important essentials essentials
many in number many
blue in color blue
combined together combined
285
51b
■•
WORDINESS
round in form
round
in my opinion, I think
each and every one
I think
each one
rest up
rest
recur again
recur
in any way, shape, or form
in this day and age
in any way
these days
join together
connect up with
join
connect with
refer back
refer
return back
return
51b. Do not use unnecessary prepositions; for example,
do not say meet up with for meet, or fall off of for
fall off.
EXERCISE 42
On your paper, rewrite the following sentences, omitting
unnecessary words:
1. Maybe I misinterpreted the story wrong.
2. Gabriel was an adjacent neighbor to the Lukes.
3. The Esmonds wished to restore James II back to the throne.
4. I do not wish one which is square in shape; I want one
oval in form.
5. The end of the corridor terminates at a small door, green
in color.
6. In this day and age any girl with the necessary financial
resources can keep her hair neat and attractive in appear-
ance.
7. After his death he received the award posthumously.
8. Although we were many in number, there were a few of us
who felt close; and so we decided to correspond with each
other in future years to come.
9. It is undeniably true that once you start to study in earnest,
your troubles will be lessened and mitigated.
10. The desire to express oneself is a universal craving which
is common to all people.
11. The company had a complete monopoly in that territory,
286
WORDINESS
51
but there were unfavorable climatic conditions which pre-
vented the factory from resuming production again.
12. In the case of those culprits, there are not many people
who would judge them solely and completely responsible
for their cruel, thoughtless, and heinous misdeeds.
13. In my opinion, I think that the check should be returned
to the bank.
14. Each and every one of you must learn to assume responsi-
bility in this day and age.
15. In a department store in our town on Tenth and L Stieets,
there are always a number of new novelties.
16. I refuse to be involved in his plans in any way, shape, or
form.
17. In compliance with your request, we are sending you under
separate cover all the pamphlets that we have in connection
with agriculture.
18. We wish to state that because we are unable to fill your
order which you sent, your check in the amount of $50 is
hereby returned.
EXERCISE 43
On your paper, reworite these sentences in clear, concise
Enghsh.
1. Through the medium of advertising, we are made to desire
more than we can afford.
2. I know it will be a sad misfortune for you if you don't make
the Honor Roll.
3. The pioneers struggled through the winter with not even
the necessities which they needed.
4. Our modern trains of today have made great improvements
for the comfort of the passengers.
5. We should like to take this opportunity to congratulate you
on the splendid job.
6. My check in the amount of $75 was sent you in January
for the purpose of completing payments on my television
set.
7. Each and every one of you is invited to come to the football
game which will begin at 1:30 p.m. on Saturday afternoon.
287
51
WORDINESS
8. Your charga-plate is enclosed; you will find it a great con-
venience if you will use it when shopping.
9. For those believing ignorance to be an inborn trait, an in-
vestigation of facts proves them wrong.
10. During the course of events which encircle my everyday
activities, I am able to make contributions to the activities
of the community.
11. The program has the aid of a distinguished and reputable
physician to impart an explanation of the causes and pre-
vention of disease.
12. The proceeds over and above the expenses of the show and
the cost of costumes and scenery will go to the treasury of
the Civic Opera Company.
13. I am happy to comply with your request for a petroleum
display relative to the oil industry for use in your classroom.
14. We are glad to report that your order has been forwarded
to our retail dealer whose shop is near you in Kingsville.
15. We must report at this time that our variety of Golden
Rule apple has been discontinued because of an uncon-
trollable disease that attacks this variety of apple tree.
16. Dear Mr. Norris:
We are sorry to inform you that we are unable to comply
with your order for ten hats with 3-inch brims. It is our
utmost pleasure to tell you that this model has been re-
placed by the York hat, which is the product of extensive
research and which we are sure will give our customers
every satisfaction.
EXERCISE 44
The following paragraphs are wordy. Rewrite them, omit-
ting unnecessary words. Some sentences may require com-
plete rewriting.
I
The granting of home rule to municipalities in our state will
be a forward step in the art and science of government. Muni-
cipalities have grown rapidly in the last decade in terms of
population and industries. Therefore the act of being granted
288
EUPHONY
the privilege of making their own charters estabhshing laws ap-
plicable to their needs is conducive to better government. There
is no rhyme nor reason to a system that allows a state legislature
to spend its time making small decisions for the government and
the establishment of laws for each and every town in the state
when these towns could handle their own afFairs adequately.
II
Tension has become as much a part of the American way of
life as have the Four Freedoms. Today we feel it is necessary
and imperative to keep up with the Joneses, and as a result we
set high goals which are many times impossible to attain and
to hold. Not being able to attain these goals, we are beset by
feelings of anxiety and failure. Through the medium of adver-
tising and the systems of installment buying we are led to de-
sire more goods and satisfactions for a higher standard of living.
This standard of living is often many times more than we can
reasonably expect to achieve. As a result we develop discontent
and nervousness.
52. EUPHONY
Euphony is pleasant sound. Good writers choose their
words carefully and arrange them so that the sound of the
sentence is euphonious.
52a. Avoid repetition of the same sound.
I hope that you will like the prize and that it is the right
size.
When Mr. Edwards recovered, he discovered that his
money had been stolen.
Note: Be particularly careful of words ending in tion or
sion. Several of them used together make a sentence sound
heavy.
After Jack's explanation, the principal gave the problem
careful consideration.
289
9lZl9"C EUPHONY
52b. Avoid different forms of the same word.
Weak: The book is covered with a green cover.
Better: The book has a green cover.
Weak: He thought everyone would think his act to be generous.
Better: He thought everyone would consider his act generous.
EXERCISE 45
On your paper, rewrite the following sentences, avoiding
faulty repetition:
1. The height of the desk is three feet high.
2. The room has not as much room as my former room had.
3. She had placed the box in another place.
4. Slowly the Indian edged toward the edge of the river.
5. I do mind having you read my mind.
6. Tommy received a birthday present from everyone present.
7. The man loafing in front of the bakery explained that he
had come to buy a loaf of bread.
8. He was a likable kind of man, always kind to children and
really interested in his fellow man.
9. At the track meet I met my old friend Marshall.
10. If a business has good public relations, people not only want
to do business with it but will enjoy doing business with it
and will not only continue to do business with it but will
recommend it to their friends.
52c. Avoid alliteration and rhyme.
Alliteration is the use of several words beginning with
the same sound. It is often used in advertising because it
attracts attention, but it should usually be avoided in good
prose.
He /ought for foreign nations in /our wars.
EXERCISE 46
Rewrite these sentences to make them sound better.
1. The balmy winds blew warmly over the bay.
2. The sun rode high in a bright blue sky.
290
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
53ci-c
3. In high school I developed a yearning to learn.
4. The intelligence service built morale by sending reports
concerning support by the home front.
5. Why should I care if you cut your hair?
6. In a blind fury he flew into tlie fray.
7. Scenes such as these are best seen at sunset.
8. I'm sorry that I was late for the date, but fate just seemed
to be against me.
9. When the meetings were resumed, we consumed quantities
of refreshments.
10. Misconceptions based on unscientific tradition have resulted
in the dissemination of misinformation about nutrition.
53. FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
Figures of speech help to make writing vivid, but they
are not effective if they are forced and strained or if they
are mixed. There are many figures of speech, but those
discussed in Section 53a-f are among the most important.
53a. A simile is the comparison of two images which
are essentially different, but which are alike in at least
one respect. The words as, as if, like are used to point
to the resemblance.
He eats like a horse.
Smoke hung over the city like a great umbrella.
53b. A metaphor is a suggested comparison.
Money is the root of all evil.
My cousin Madeline is a cat.
All the world's a stage.
The crime investigation committee was told to stop look-
ing for mice and find the breeding place.
53c. Personification gives human qualities to objects
that are not living.
The wind howled.
A smiling moon looked down on the lovers.
291
WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS OFTEN MISUSED
53d. Hyperbole is exaggeration.
I was insane from grief.
I've told you a thousand times what to do.
Hyperbole should be used sparingly and very cautiously.
53e. Metonymy is the use of one word for another
that it suggests.
The ketde boils. (Water in the ketde boils.)
She sets a good table. (Good food)
The use of figures of speech, when overdone, makes a
style florid. It is important that the figures be fresh and
original. Many figures that were once effective have become
trite. Avoid these.
53f. Avoid mixed figures.
Students who are striving for effect sometimes mix their
similes or metaphors; that is, they start a sentence by mak-
ing a comparison and finish it with another comparison
entirely different from the first.
The road to success is straight, narrow, and strewn with
rocks, but the ambitious man must swim through it.
(The way to success is a road; then it is a river.)
By milking the cow dry, we are going to kill the goose
that lays the golden eggs. (Mixing the figures makes
the sentence absurd.)
54. GLOSSARY OF WORDS AND
EXPRESSIONS OFTEN MISUSED
A, AN. An should be used before an initial vowel sound;
a, before a word beginning with a consonant sound:
an adult, a problem
ABOUT, AROUND. Ahout mcans "approximately"; around
means "along the circumference of" or "on all sides of."
292
WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS OFTEN MISUSED
I live about a mile from school.
I walked around the block.
ACCEPT, EXCEPT. Accept mcans "to receive"; except (when
used as a verb) means "to exclude."
He accepted the nomination.
The teacher excepted from the assignment those students
preparing reports.
AD. Colloquial abbreviation for advertisement. In formal
writing, avoid such colloquialisms as ad, exam, phone,
and prof.
ADAPT, ADOPT. Adapt mcaus "to adjust to new conditions";
adopt means "to take as your own."
The old building could not be adapted to today's needs.
The Romans adopted many customs and ideas from the
nations they had conquered.
ADVISE. "To give advice." Use sparingly for inform or tell.
( Note that advise is used as a verb, and advice is used as
a noun. )
Poor: We beg to advise that our representative will be in
Kansas City next week.
Better: We are happy to tell you that our representative will be
in Kansas City next week.
AFFECT, EFFECT. Affcct is always a verb; it means either (a)
"to influence or produce a change in" or ( b ) "to put on or
assume." Effect can be a noun or a verb. As a noun it
means "a result or outcome"; as a verb it means "to bring
about or to accomplish."
The sight of so much suffering affected him deeply.
He affects a British accent.
No one could foresee the effects of this decision.
The doctor effected a miraculous cure.
ALL READY, ALREADY. All ready (two words) means "every-
293
WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS OFTEN MISUSED
thing ( or everyone ) ready" or "completely ready"; already
means "previously."
We have looked in that box already.
I was all ready to start for school.
After some delay, the horses were all ready to run.
ALL RIGHT, ALRIGHT. All fight is Overworked to mean "very
well." Alright is not an acceptable word.
ALL TOGETHER, ALTOGETHER. All together mcaiis "when all
are counted" or "everybody (or everything) in one place
(or at one time)"; altogether means "wholly."
There were eight of us all together.
That is an altogether different problem.
AMONG, BETWEEN. Amoug shows the relation of more than
two objects; between refers to only two.
He distributed the prizes among the fi\e winners.
He divided the reward between Jack and Joe.
That is the road between Fort Worth and Dallas.
AMOUNT, NUMBER. AmouTit is uscd with quantities that
cannot be counted or in cases where only the size of a
thing matters; number is used with quantities that can be
counted.
A surprising amount of snow fell this spring.
A record number of people attended the first home game.
AND ETC. Redundant. Etc. is the abbreviation for et cetera,
meaning "and so forth." (In formal writing, such ab-
breviations should usually be avoided. )
ANY PLACE, EVERY PLACE, NO PLACE, SOME PLACE. Faulty. UsC
instead anywhere, everywhere, nowhere, somewhere.
Never use anywheres or somewheres.
BESIDE, BESIDES. Bcsidc is a preposition meaning "by the
side of"; besides is both a preposition and an adverb
meaning "moreover," "except," "in addition."
294
WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS OFTEN MISUSED
Correct: Jane sits beside me.
Who is going besides Harold? (Preposition)
I don't know the boy; besides, I don't want to know
him. (Adverb)
BRING, TAKE. Bring means "to come with something (toward
the speaker or hstener)"; take means "to carry something
away (from the speaker)."
Bring me the morning paper.
Take this note to your homeroom teacher.
BURSTED, BUST, BUSTED. Vulgarisms for hurst. The principal
parts of burst are burst, burst, burst. Also used incorrectly
for break, broke, broken.
CAN, MAY, MIGHT. Can suggcsts ability, physical or mental.
May implies permission or sanction.
Correct: He can make good grades if he tries.
The teacher says you may leave.
The distinction between can and may is shown in this
sentence:
I doubt that you can, but you may try.
May also expresses possibility and wish.
It may rain today. (Possibility)
May you have a good trip! (Wish)
Might is used after a verb in the past tense; may, after
a verb in the present tense.
He said that you might go.
He says that you may go.
CANNOT HELP BUT. A double negative {cannot help and
cannot but).
Correct: I cannot help believing the story.
I cannot but believe the story.
295
WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS OFTEN MISUSED
can't hardly, can't SCARCELY. A double negative.
Avoid: I can't hardly hear you. ^~
Correct: I can hardly hear you.
consul, COUNSEL, COUNCIL. A consul is an official who
represents his government in a foreign country. Counsel
means "advice" or "adviser" as a noun, or "to advise" as a
verb. Council means "a body of people serving in a legal,
administrative, or advisory capacity."
The class secretary wrote to the Italian consul for infor-
mation about Italy.
His counsel is worthless because he doesn't understand
the situation. (Advice)
The state appointed the defendant's counsel. (Adviser)
The lawyer counseled against answering questions. (Ad-
vised)
The student council is debating the advantages and dis-
advantages of the honor system.
CONTACT, CONTACTED. Overworked business terms.
Avoid: We can contact Mr. Myers tomorrow.
Better: We can f pet in touch with "1 ^ ,
^7 y Mr. Mvers tomorrow.
1 reach j ^
CONTINUAL, CONTINUOUS. Continuul means "repeated often";
continuous means "without a stop."
These continual interruptions prevent me from doing my
homework.
The only sound you can hear at night is the continuous
pounding of the surf.
CREDIBLE, CREDITABLE, CREDULOUS. Credible means "believ-
able"; creditable means "praiseworthy"; credulous means
"gullible."
Correct: The story is not credible.
You have made a creditable eflEort.
Only a very credulous person would believe that story.
296
WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS OFTEN MISUSED
DEVICE, DEVISE. Device is a noun meaning "a machine, a piece
of apparatus" or "a trick, scheme, or plan." Devise is a
verb meaning "to think out, plan, or invent."
This new device will cut your heating bills.
It may take years to devise a better system,
DISCOVER, INVENT. Discover means "to find something that
was there before you came along." Invent means "to create
something new."
Columbus discovered America,
Madame Curie discovered radium.
Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone,
FAMOUS, NOTORIOUS. Famous means "well known for some
admirable achievement." Notorious means "well known"
also, but generally in an unfavorable way.
Admiral Byrd was a famous explorer.
The 7iotorious criminal was captured just as he was leav-
ing the country.
FEMALE. Do not use as a synonym for woman or girl.
Crude: What kind of female is she?
Polite: What kind of girl is she?
FEWER, LESS. Fcwer is used with things that can be counted;
it is used with plural nouns. Less is used to indicate
amount or degree; it is used with singular nouns.
Fewer people attended today's game than yesterday's
game.
I have less money this year than last year.
FOLKS. Colloquial for relatives or people.
FORMER, LATTER. Former means "the first of the two men-
tioned." Latter means "the second of the two mentioned."
Grant and Hayes were both Republican Presidents. The
former served two terms; the latter served one,
297
WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS OFTEN MISUSED
GOOD, WELL. Good IS usually an adjective; it modifies a noun.
This pie is good.
Well may be an adjective or an adverb. When it is used
as an adjective, it always refers to health.
I am feeling well. (Adjective)
This mower doesn't work as well as it used to. (Adverb)
I did the assignment as well as I could.
GR.\DUATE HIGH SCHOOL. Incorrcct form. Say "graduate from
high school."
HEALTHFUL, HEALTtiY. Healthful mcaus "promoting good
health." Healthy means "being in good health" or "show-
ing good health."
The climate in the mountains is healthful.
The nurse said I was perfectly healthy.
He certainly has a healthy appetite.
HUMAN, HUMANE. Humati means "characteristic of man";
humans means "kind" or "compassionate."
To err is human.
They were too humane to enjoy the bullfight.
IF, WHETHER. Usc if in Conditional sentences; use whether in
stating alternatives (expressed or implied).
Correct: If he is in, I mean to call on him.
I don't know whether he is ten years old or twelve.
IMPLY, INFER. To infer is to draw a conclusion from state-
ments, circumstances, or evidence. To imply is to suggest
a meaning not explicitly stated.
Correct: The detective inferred from the position of the finger-
prints that the man who had fired the shot was left-
handed.
What you have just said implies that you doubt my
story.
298
WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS OFTEN MISUSED
IN, INTO. Verbs indicating movement into a place are gen-
erally followed by into.
When he walked into the room, he found us ready.
In is used to indicate motion within a place.
She paced up and down in the classroom.
INGENIOUS, INGENUOUS. Ingenious means "talented, inventive,
resourceful." Ingenuous means "naive."
George is ingenious; I'm sure he'll find a solution.
No one expects diplomats to be ingenuous.
INSIDE OF, OFF OF, OUTSIDE OF. Of is supcrfluous. Inside, off,
outside can be used by themselves as prepositions.
It's warm inside the house.
John has fallen off the horse again.
I'm forbidden to go outside the house.
However, when inside or outside is used as a noun, it is
often followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with
of.
I painted only the outside of the house.
I spent the morning cleaning the inside of the car.
IRREGARDLESS. Incorrcct form. Use regardless.
LET, LEAVE. Leuve means "to go away." Let means "to per-
mit." "Let me alone" means "Stop annoying me." "Leave
me alone" means "I wish to be here by myself."
LIABLE, LIKELY, APT. Liable implies exposure to something
unpleasant or disadvantageous; likely means "expected or
probable"; apt means "inclined, disposed," "fit, suitable,"
or "quick to learn."
The motorist responsible is liable for damages.
It is likely to rain.
She made an apt remark.
He is an apt pupil.
299
WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS OFTEN MISUSED
Apt and likely are often used interchangeably; however,
careful writers distinguish between their meanings.
MAYBE, MAY BE. Mtti/be is an adverb meaning "perhaps" or
"possibly." May be is a verb form.
Maybe I won't go after all.
George may be our next class president.
MOST, ALMOST. Almost is an adverb meaning "nearly." Most
is used as a noun meaning "the greatest quantity or
number" or as an adjective meaning "greatest in quantity
or number" or "nearly all"; it is used as an adverb only
to form the superlative degree of an adjective or adverb.
(See Section 18e. )
Most of the tickets have been sold.
We have sold almost all of the tickets.
I believe that 7nost people are honest.
This is the most ridiculous story I have ever heard.
NAUSEOUS, NAUSEATED. Nutiseous mcaus "disgusting, caus-
ing nausea"; nauseated means "sick at the stomach."
Wrong: I have felt nauseous all morning.
Right: I have felt nauseated all morning.
Right: The chemical gave off a nauseous odor.
NOWHERE NEAR. Colloquial. Usc not nearly.
Correct: I have not nearly finished the job.
O.K. Greatly overused. Use a more exact expression.
PARTY, PERSON, INDIVIDUAL. Party implies a group and,
except in legal and telephonic language, should not be
used to refer to one person. Individual refers to a partic-
ular or single person. It is not a synonym for person; it
should be used only when you want to emphasize the
oneness of the person as distinct from a group.
A party of young people were on their way to the ski
lodge.
300
WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS OFTEN MISUSED
The bridge was so weakened that it could bear the weight
of only one person at a time.
The class in sociology is studying the relations of the
individual with the group.
PERSECUTE, PROSECUTE. Persecute means "to annoy, to cause
to suffer, to hunt down." Prosecute means "to carry out a
legal action against."
Nero persecuted the Christians.
The company threatened to prosecute all trespassers.
PLENTY. A noun. As an adverb or adjective, plenty should
be avoided in formal speech or writing.
Incorrect: He was plenty angry.
Correct: The dairy has plenty of milk.
PRECEDE, PROCEED. Precede means "to go before"; proceed
means "to go or continue."
A precedes b in the alphabet.
When the latecomers were seated, the speaker proceeded
with his lecture.
PRINCIPAL, PRINCIPLE, Principal used as a noun is a "sum of
money" or "chief executive of a school" and as an adjective
means "chief" or "main." Principle is used as a noun mean-
ing "a governing rule or truth."
PROPOSITION. Business jargon for "proposal."
RESPECTFULLY, RESPECTIVELY. Respcctfully mcans "in a re-
spectful manner"; respectively means "each in the order
given."
The letter was signed "Respectfully yours,"
In a business letter the salutation and the complimentary
close are followed by a colon and a comma, respec-
tively.
SAID, SAME, SUCH. Same and such are adjectives. Said is a
verb.
301
WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS OFTEN MISUSED
Objectionable: Although the said plan was feasible, I decided
not to adopt same.
Use it, that, or this instead of said, same, or such.
SUSPICION. Suspicion is a noun. Do not use it when you mean
suspect, a verb.
Incorrect: I suspicioned that he was the thief.
Correct: I suspected that he was the thief.
Correct: I had a strong suspicion that he was the thief.
WAIT ON. Wait on means "to attend, to serve"; it is a localism
when used to mean "wait for."
Incorrect: I waited on him for an hour before he came.
Correct: I waited an hour for him before he came.
EXERCISE 47
On your paper, rewrite the following sentences, using
good diction.
1. I wouldn't except an invite to her party unless she apolo-
gized.
2. Some folks still believe that it is not healthy to go without
a hat.
3. You're liable to see most anybody you know at those Friday
night dances.
4. I couldn't help but feel worried when the principle sent
for me.
5. You didn't say you suspicioned him, but your manner in-
ferred that you did.
6. There were five couples beside Frances and me, so that
there were twelve of us altogether.
7. I can't hardly believe that Mr. Thompson never graduated
high school,
8. Any individual who damages or defaces school property will
be persecuted.
9. Please advise me whether you have the machine in stock
and how soon you will be able to ship same.
302
WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS OFTEN MISUSED
10. These continuous interruptions while I am doing my home-
work are beginning to effect my grades.
11. I felt so nauseous that I thought I would pass out most any
minute.
12. He ran in the house and asked his mother to leave him go
swimming, but she said it was nowhere near warm enough.
13. I wish someone would discover a really good device for
getting the tops oflF of glass jars.
14. Henry wasn't feeling very good this morning, but may be
he will be alright in time for the rehearsal.
15. I am anxious to know if you are interested in my proposi-
tion in connection with marketing your product.
EXERCISE 48
On your paper, rewrite the following sentences, correcting
the errors in diction:
1. In spite of the favorable factors in your case, I shall have
to answer in the negative.
2. In the sea of ruthless competition, one can climb to success
only by seizing the golden flower of opportunity,
3. In connection with the degree ot his guilt, I am of the
persuasion that we are not certain as to whether we are
fvJly conversant and acquainted with all the facts of the
case.
4. The president's attention was arrested by Mr. Blaine's ability
to cope with any situation that might arise.
5. Before giving the glass of milk to the little lass, I placed a
box of crackers before her.
6. My fellow classmates average in height a height of sixty-
eight inches.
7. In these respects, laboratory sciences are of a notoriously
trying nature.
8. With bated breath we watched that miserable specimen of
humanity go to his doom.
9. As soon as I saw that sleek roadster in the showroom, I felt
a weak moment coming on.
10. Those who take rooms in this house will have more than
enough room in which to house their appurtenances.
303
WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS OFTEN MISUSED
11. The sheer force of his personahty beggars description.
12. In connection with her other traits I should mention her
pulchritude, which is of a very high order.
13. With regard to gardening facilities, there is an empty, va-
cant piece of unused land in back of the house.
14. The good benefits one receives from camp are perfectly all
right, but excess laziness has a toe hold on the minds of
most campers.
15. Ellen is the sort of girl with whom one likes to have a date
with.
16. There were many of us who thought that he was an excep-
tionally unique person.
17. A goodly number of voters, perhaps more sinned against
than sinning, wrought havoc by staying away from the polls
in droves.
18. Please refer back to the minutes of the last meeting, where
you will find a new angle along the lines which we have
been corresponding with each other about.
EXERCISE 49
The following sentences contain provincialisms, im-
proprieties, colloquialisms, vulgarisms, slang, and misspell-
ing. On your paper, rev^rite the sentences in correct, formal
English,
1. We have et every one of the sandwiches.
2. Will you be in the dorm then?
3. The poor student always gets it in the neck.
4. He never let on he knew about it.
5. She was an earthly angle, but one without wings.
6. I could of gone if I had worked on Saturday.
7. They walked up to the alter and got married.
8. What do you reckon he meant by that?
9. Dick had a bad case of the jitters.
10. Please proceed me into the room.
11. She took on when I told her of the accident.
12. I never would have suspicioned it.
13. He had to accompany a dumb bunny to the dance.
304
WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS OFTEN MISUSED
14. The latch is broken off the gait.
15. Leave go of me at once,
16. He was peaceful ordinarily, but sometimes his choler rose.
17. Why did you fall for that?
18. Now you will have to work extra hard.
EXERCISE 50
The following sentences contain examples of triteness,
"fine" writing, jargon, mixed figures, wordiness, faulty repeti-
tion, and lack of euphony. On your paper, rewrite each
sentence, keeping as close as possible to the intended
meaning.
1. Rod decided to seize the bit in his teeth and come down
like a wolf on the fold.
2. At the institution of higher learning which he favored with
his presence, he was justly proud of his rugged individ-
ualism.
3. After spending much time preparing to leave, and after
many fond good-bys, we decided to proceed on our journey.
4. Although he ordinarily liked the succulent bivalve, he picked
up one of the delectable morsels in a gingerly fashion and
devoured it with a wry smile.
5. Not all widow women regard their lot with apprehension,
but those who are left with small children are prone to view
their status with alarm.
6. Sitting in his room alone by himself, he repeated her name
over again and again.
7. A raging conflagration all too soon destroyed the edifice
which with loving hands we had erected.
8. Sweetly scented school sashes worn by the fair sex added
to the riot of color on the crowded dance floor.
9. Full steam ahead! In this storm of controversy, you must
not let your hand falter on the plow.
10. After serious financial reverses, he attempted to misappro-
priate funds from the bank.
11. We followed the speaker's line of reasoning to a very great
extent.
12. Our gridiron warriors were tendered a banquet at the con-
305
WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS OFTEN MISUSED
elusion of their vietorious season, and after the sumptuous
repast each gladiator spoke a few well-chosen words.
13. The nature of the outside reading in English composition
is something of an added attraction.
14. When asked if he wished to be the recipient of our offer
of a position, he replied in the affirmative.
15. We beg to state that your valued order will receive prompt
attention, along the lines which you suggested.
16. At the groaning table I forgot that I was supposed to have
a delicate and birdlike appetite.
17. He was caught in the immutable wheels of fate and never
reached the goal of his ambition.
18. I may have gone a little too far, but I was simply impelled
to get it off my chest.
19. Among those present were included only a paltry few who
voiced the sentiments of the players themselves.
20. All nature seemed engaging, but the sight of the crimson
orb setting behind the lofty mountain was a delightful fea-
ture which beggars all description.
306
The Sentence
Do you write gobbledygook? This is a type of writing that
rambles; it uses ten words where five would do a better
job; it is awkward in structure and unpleasant in sound.
As a result, the reader must examine it three or four times
before he knows what it means. Not long ago the Air Force
sent to all its employees a little pamphlet called Gobbledy-
gook or Plain Talk? In the pamphlet there are quotations
from an article on annual leave and from other military
notices — all written in gobbledygook. Then the author begs
for clear, simple sentences. But the clear sentence is im-
portant not only to the military forces. It is vital in business.
It is effective in the club and in your social life. The
problems of writing good sentences may be considered
under three heads: Correctness (Sections 55-58), Clearness
(Sections 59-67), and Effectiveness (Sections 68-72).
55. PERIOD FAULT
A sentence is a group of words that expresses a com-
plete thought. Do not write a part of a sentence and put a
period at the end. Such punctuation is known as the period
fault.
Wrong: To a tiapper, a fur coat means hours of backbreaking
work. Also the joy and thrill known only to the hunter.
(The words beginning with also do not make a com-
plete thought. They are only part of a sentence.)
Right: To a trapper, a fur coat means hours of backbreaking
307
PERIOD FAULT
work; but it means also the joy and thrill known only
to the hunter.
Wrong: After a time, I began to find value in the sport. A value
appreciated chiefly by the man who follows the trail.
(The words beginning with a value form an appositive,
not a complete thought. They are part of a sentence,
not a whole sentence.)
Right: After a time, I began to find value in the sport, a value
appreciated chiefly by the man who follows the trail.
Wrong: The hunter sees the beauty of the morning sun. Throw-
ing a path of light across the lake. (The words begin-
ning with throwing form a participial phrase, not a
complete thought. They are only part of a sentence.)
Right: The hunter sees the beauty of the morning sun throw-
ing a path of light across the lake.
Wrong: The hunter loves life outdoors. Especially in the fall and
winter. (The words beginning with especially do not
form a complete thought. Be careful of expressions be-
ginning with especially or for example. They should
often be joined to the preceding clause.)
Right: The hunter loves life outdoors, especially in the fall and
winter.
Caution: Don't relax because you are writing a friendly
letter. Your correspondent deserves the courtesy of careful
work.
Wrong: Was happy to hear of your promotion. (No subject)
Right: I was happy to hear of your promotion.
Note: There are two kinds of incomplete sentences which
are permissible, elliptical sentences and fragmentary sen-
tences used for stylistic effect.
In elliptical sentences, the complete thought is implied
but not stated.
"Did you buy it?"
"Yes."
"For how much?"
"Five dollars."
308
COMMA FAULT
Skilled writers sometimes obtain special eflFects by using
fragmentary sentences for stylistic eflPect, but only people
skilled in the use of language can use sentence fragments
safely. Poor use of sentence fragments gives the effect of
illiteracy. High school students, unless they are very
talented writers, should avoid the fragment.
EXERCISE 1
On your paper, rewrite the following sentences, correct-
ing the period fault. To correct some of these sentences you
will have to guess what the writer had in mind.
1. The room was filled with flowers. Some of which were very
expensive.
2. She put on her best clothes and went to the movies. Instead
of sitting at home worrying.
3. The airship was put into its hangar. So that curious specta-
tors could not damage it.
4. Have shipped your order and billed you for July 1,
5. First of all, the training which is required.
6. Everything was new and interesting. Mainly the clothes.
7. He told many jokes at the party. Some of which were not
at all funny.
8. Swimming and fishing in the ocean in the daytime and
dancing on the boardwalk at night.
9. While Julius was in college, he received several academic
honors. One of these being a scholarship.
10. Dignitaries of both governments attending in oflBcial uni-
forms and medals.
56. COMMA FAULT
Do not write two sentences with only a comma between
them. Such punctuation is known as the comma fault.
Sentences that are separated only by commas are called
run-on sentences.
Wrong: I hope that you can get the house that you spoke about,
it sounds great.
309
COMMA FAULT
Wrong: I have some good news for you about the bowhng team,
we have won three straight matches.
Each of these groups of words is composed of two com-
plete thoughts with only a comma between them. A comma
is not a strong enough mark to use between two complete
thoughts. Use a period instead.
Right: I hope that you can get the house that you spoke about.
It sounds great.
Right: I have some good news for you about the bowling team.
We have won three straight matches.
If the ideas are closely related, these run-on sentences may
be combined in one sentence. Here are three ways of mak-
ing one sentence out of them:
1. Use a semicolon.
I hope that you can get the house that you spoke about;
it sounds great.
2. Use a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, or) and
a comma.
I hope that you can get the house that you spoke about,
for it sounds great.
3. Subordinate one idea.
Because the house that you spoke about sounds great, I
hope that you can get it.
The method that you choose depends upon the emphasis
that you wish to make. If both of the ideas are equally
emphatic, you may use a period, semicolon, or coordinating
conjunction. The two ideas will then stand out with equal
strength. The use of a subordinating conjunction makes one
idea dependent upon the other. In order to make your style
interesting and vivid, you must give some attention to the
impression that you wish to make and the type of sentence
that will fit that impression.
310
COMMA FAULT
Note: Be particularly careful if the two clauses are joined
by a conjunctive adverb {however, moreover, nevertheless,
therefore, thus, then, so, yet, otherwise). If these words join
two independent ideas, a semicolon must precede the con-
junctive adverb. (See Section 24b.)
Wrong: You did not complete your work, consequently you will
receive no credit.
Right: You did not complete your work; consequently you will
receive no credit.
EXERCISE 2
On your paper, rewrite these run-on sentences from stu-
dent papers. Choose for each sentence the form that in your
opinion suits it best.
1. Thank you very much, it was sweet of you to invite me to
your party.
2. This is my own fault, if I had done my work in the winter,
I should not have to go to summer school.
3. Some shops are using Lucite boxes for a display of jewelry,
their tops are transparent.
4. You will have to give the chair at least two coats of white
paint, otherwise the dark color of the old paint will show.
5. In some South American countries a businessman must talk
sociably for at least fifteen minutes, then he can introduce a
business matter.
6. He was not dependable in his former position, therefore we
cannot employ him.
7. Do come this weekend to see us in our new home, we have
missed the pleasant evenings we used to spend with you.
8. Ten drivers started in the race only eight finished.
9. The next thing to work on is the motor of the car, this is
the part of the work that runs into money.
10. There were three political parties in Burke's day, they were
Tories, Old Whigs, and New Whigs.
311
FUSED SENTENCES
57. FUSED SENTENCES
Do not write two sentences with no punctuation between
them. Such sentences are known as fused sentences.
I£ the two sentences combined in this way are both state-
ments, the methods suggested in Section 56 may be used in
correcting them. Sometimes, however, an inexperienced
writer combines two questions or a question and a state-
ment. Then the only way to correct the sentence is to end
one of the complete ideas with a period, a question mark,
or an exclamation point. Be very sure that you have two
complete ideas before you use this method of correction.
Wrong: What kind of yearbook are you going to have will it be
anything like ours?
Right: What kind of yearbook are you going to have? Will it be
anything like ours?
Wrong: He is a great lacrosse player don't you think so?
Right: He is a great lacrosse player. Don't you think so?
EXERCISE 3
On your paper, rewrite the following sentences, using
periods, question marks, or exclamation points where they
are needed:
1. Are you going so soon I'll walk to the corner with you.
2. Criticizing the candidates gets you nowhere you should vote.
3. Turn out the lights they will see that we are here.
4. Have you been affected much by the water shortage if so,
I guess your sister is glad, for she won't have to take a bath
every day.
5. On Saturday I saw a movie about the Old South I wish hoop
skirts would become fashionable again.
EXERCISE 4
On your paper, rewi-ite these sentences, correcting the
period fault, the comma fault, or the fused-sentence fault.
(See Sections 55-57.)
312
FUSED SENTENCES
1. Was glad to hear that you made the team.
2. Suppose we had hved long ago when there were no radios
just think what we should be missing.
3. In Mexico, the mistress never goes shopping in the market,
the maid does the laundry, the cleaning, and the shopping.
4. When they found a piece of ground that suited them. They
built a beautiful ranch house.
5. I enjoyed very much seeing June Randall again, she asked
to be remembered to you.
6. We drifted down the Grand Canal. Listening to the music
and enjoying the beauty of Venice spread out before us.
7. When we took oflF, not a man knew our destination, we
were to be signaled when to jump from the plane.
8. Only one thing will make our project successful. The will-
ingness of all the members to work together.
9. The lie detector does not detect lies, it merely records the
emotional excitement of the victim.
10. First cream the butter and sugar thoroughly, then stir in
the eggs and milk.
11. I like all the ties. One particularly because it goes so well
with my new suit.
12. The most interesting part of the book has to do with the
Atlantic Charter. Especially the part in which the Charter
permits each nation to choose its own go\'emment.
13. There is a great deal of fun in gardening, my neighbor and
I always ha\"e friendly arguments about whose crops are
better.
14. At the age of nine, I was enrolled in The Children's Experi-
mental Theater. A drama group that teaches free expression.
15. When the great day came, I was not too anxious to be in
the play, in fact I thought that I was going to be sick.
16. All was quiet, then the man in the glass booth raised his
hand and dropped it, we were on the air.
17. There was a tense feeling among the crew. When all of a
sudden a cannon shot burst into die air.
18. There was another girl in whom he was interested, she had
dark hair and big black eyes.
19. At Garrison Boulevard we didn't see the policeman, it was
a dark night, and the street light on the comer was out.
313
■ MISUSE OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES
20. Last week was a memorable occasion for me, I purchased
my new communications receiver.
21. I surely wish I could get you interested in "ham" radio, it
is a fascinating hobby.
22. Last Saturday night the two teams lined up against each
other. One like David and one like Goliath.
23. When the crops are sold, not all of the money is profit, a
great percent is overhead. Such as labor, repairs to ma-
chinery, and freight charges.
24. In the Shakespearean theater, the poor people stood on the
ground. While the rich sat in boxes on the side of the
theater.
25. To prove mv point, let's go back a few years. When Henry
Ford started his revolutionary idea of producing cars in
great numbers.
58. MISUSE OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES
A child writes simple sentences beginning with the sub-
ject; but as a person's style matures, he uses dependent
clauses to show the relationship of one idea to another, and
he varies the structure of sentences in order to give strength
and rhythm to his writing. A knowledge of the proper use of
dependent clauses is necessary for the development of a
mature style.
58a. Do not use an adverbial clause as a noun clause.
Adverbial clauses beginning with when and where are
often used incorrectly as noun clauses.
Wrong: I read where the weather forecaster said a snowstorm
was coming.
Right: I read that the weather forecaster said a snowstorm was
coming.
Wrong: The reason why the automobile stopped was because
it had inin out of gasoline.
Right: The reason why the automobile stopped was that it had
run out of gasoline.
314
MISUSE OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES
58b. Do not use an adverbial clause in place of a noun.
Wrong: Plagiarism is where you take the work of another and
pass it oflF as your own.
Right: Plagiarism is copying the work of another and passing
it off as one's own.
Wrong: Anemia is when the blood is deficient in red corpuscles.
Right: Anemia is an illness in which there is a deficiency of
red corpuscles.
58c. Do not use an independent clause as the subject
of Is or was.
Faulty: There is too much homework is my brother's main com-
plaint.
Better: That there is too much homework is my brother's main
complaint.
He complains because there is too much homework.
EXERCISE 5
On your paper, rewrite these sentences, correcting the
misuse of dependent clauses:
1. I see in the paper where the weather has been unusually
cold this winter.
2. The train left by daylight time is why I missed it.
3. In the game of baseball, a strike is when the player tries to
hit the ball but misses it.
4. He did not concentrate was why he failed the course.
5. The reason the mower did not cut the grass was because its
blades were dull.
6. Perjury is where a man swears to tell the tiuth and then
tells a lie.
7. Because I bought a new suit is why she thinks I have money.
8. My father was a lawyer was the reason why I studied law.
9. His definition of freedom is when you can look any man
squarely in the eye.
10. His home is where you can always have a good time.
315
USING ONLY RELATED IDEAS IN A SENTENCE
59. USING ONLY RELATED IDEAS
IN A SENTENCE
In order to be clear, a sentence must have unity and
coherence. Sections 59-61 deal with ways of obtaining
sentence unity. Sections 62-67 deal with methods of making
a sentence coherent. Clear reference of pronouns, which is
important in any study of the clear sentence, has been
treated in Section 13. A sentence has unity when all ideas
in it are closely related and contribute to a single impression.
Wrong: 1. Bill was a basketball player and he is a graduate of
Erie High School.
2. Vaslav Nijinsky was one of the greatest dancers the
world has ever known, and he was in a mental hospital
for many years.
3. I hope that you will visit me next summer and tell
June to write to me.
Sometimes unity can be obtained by making one idea
subordinate to the other and using a connecting link that
makes clear the relationship between the ideas. See the
improved form of Sentence 1.
Improved: 1. Bill is a graduate of Erie High School, where he
was a star basketball player.
Sometimes, however, the ideas are so completely un-
related that only a complete separation of them can establish
unity. Occasionally they should be in another paragraph.
See the improved forms of Sentence 2 and Sentence 3:
Improved: 2. Vaslav Nijinsky was one of the greatest dancers
the world has ever known. Unfortunately he was in
a mental hospital for many years and could not show
the world his art.
Improved: 3. I hope that you will visit me next summer. Please
tell June to write to me.
316
RAMBLING SENTENCES
EXERCISE 6
On your paper, rewrite the following sentences so that
they are unified. If the ideas in any sentence cannot be
related, omit one of them.
1. We believe that our club is the best in the school, and it
was founded ten years ago.
2. The Saturday Evening Post is my favorite among weekly
magazines, and it is published in Philadelphia.
3. I made 93 in the last history test, and I decided to go to
the movies instead of studying.
4. Last Saturday, I went on my first blind date, and I lost my
school ring.
5. My sister wants to be a florist, and she is only twelve years
old.
6. He is a much better dancer than his brother, who took
lessons for several years and works in a grocery store.
7. Woodrow Wilson was an eminent statesman, and he had a
prominent chin.
8. People in North Carolina like hot breads, and the largest
city is Charlotte.
9. The father of the family was a physician, having studied
at Jefferson Medical College in Philadelphia, the third
largest city in the United States.
10. He is a very clever person, his sister having studied in Paris
for several years.
60. RAMBLING SENTENCES
Avoid rambling sentences which introduce too many
details.
Rambling: Beethoven, who is considered one of the great mas-
ters of music, was the son of a court musician and
a cook, and he became deaf at thirty-two, but he
composed some magnificent symphonies.
Revised: Beethoven, one of the great masters of music, was
the son of a court musician and a cook. Although
he became deaf at thirty-two, he composed some
magnificent symphonies.
317
CHOPPY SENTENCES
EXERCISE 7
On your paper, rewrite the following selection in unified
sentences:
1. Nijinsky was a great dancer. 2. His tremendous leaps
seemed to defy gravity, and his grace, probably inherited from
his mother, who was a dancer, especially in Scheherezade, in
which he danced the part of a slave in love with a princess,
caused him to be applauded by throngs of people in all coun-
tries. 3. One of his greatest successes was his debut in New York
in a dance called Specter of the Rose, now a part of the rep-
ertoire of several ballet companies, in which thousands of rose
petals floated over the stage as the great dancer performed. 4.
Later he danced in Paris with the famous Pavlova and came to
England in 1948 with his wife, a Hungarian actress, and his
daughter lives in Rome and is also a dancer.
61. CHOPPY SENTENCES
Students who have been taught not to write rambling
sentences sometimes go to the opposite extreme. They
become afraid to join any ideas in one sentence. As a result,
they write each thought as a separate unit. This procedure,
however, can destroy unity as thoroughly as rambling sen-
tences do, for in choppy sentences, you cannot see how the
ideas are related.
Choppy: Many trees die each year. They have had bad treat-
ment. In our neighborhood, some people whitewash
the trunks. They think that whitewash will keep in-
sects away. Tree doctors say that whitewash will dam-
age the bark. In some states there are laws against
stripping blossoming trees like dogwood. Every spring
a few people evade the law. They want to please
themselves. They have no thought for the beauty of
the woods. They are unconcerned about the destruc-
tion of a tree. They break off large branches. Then
the tree dies. Their selfishness deprives many other
people of pleasure.
318
INCOMPLETENESS
EXERCISE 8
On your paper, revise the choppy paragraph in Section
61 by making sentences that show the relationship of one
idea to another.
EXERCISE 9
On your paper, rewrite the following selection in uni-
fied sentences:
1. We are bombarded on all sides by propaganda. 2. We
don't know what to believe. 3. We have been taught a few ways
in which to test what we hear on the radio or read in the news-
paper, and it is important to know who the speaker or writer
is and what he knows about his subject. 4. Some people try to
make us act by stirring our emotions. 5. They do not think clearly
themselves. 6. They expect to make us do what they want done.
7. They don't give us logical reasons for acting. 8. Some people
present only one side of the question discussed, and no question
has only one side; so we suspect those people of being prejudiced
and we do not put too much faith in what they say because if
they were honest, they would tell the whole story, not simply
a part of it. 9. It is important also to know what methods a
speaker or writer used to gather his facts because sometimes
investigations are carelessly made and the conclusions drawn are
not valid. 10. In a democratic country, it is important for people
to think.
62. INCOMPLETENESS
To be coherent, a sentence must be complete. Sometimes
words are omitted when the writer understands so well what
he wants to say that he thinks he has made his meaning
clear to the reader.
62a. Be sure to include all necessary verbs.
Doubtful: The lawn is mowed and the hedges trimmed.
Correct: The lawn is mowed, and the hedges are trimmed.
Correct: The lawn is mowed and the fence repaired.
319
■*• INCOMPLETENESS
Note: The auxiliary verb can be understood when it is in
the same form that has been expressed in the sentence. If
another form is grammatically necessary, it should be ex-
pressed. Is can be understood before repaired in the above
sentence.
Doubtful: He has never done any work and never will.
Improved: He has never done any work and never will do any.
Note: If the verb to be is used as an auxiliary and as a main
verb, it must be expressed both times.
Doubtful: She was a fine girl and liked by everybody.
main verb auxiliary
Improved: She was a fine girl and was liked by everybody.
62b. Include necessary articles, pronouns, and prep-
ositions.
We needed a clerk and typist. (One person)
We needed a clerk and a typist. (Two persons)
Doubtful: He built an automobile which could go ninety miles
an hour and pleased many people.
Improved: He built an automobile which could go ninety miles
an hour and which pleased many people.
Doubtful: I am neither interested nor concerned about his wel-
fare. (Interested about his welfare?)
Improved: I am neither interested in his welfare nor concerned
about it.
62c. In formal writing, do not omit that if the subject
of the subordinate clause might seem at first glance to
be the object of the verb preceding.
Informal: 1 know the President of the United States must be an
American by birth. (At first glance, the writer seems
to be personally acquainted with the President.)
Formal: I know that the President of the United States must
be an American by birth.
See Section 67 for omission of words in a comparison.
320
INCOMPLETENESS
62d. Be sure to express every idea essential to the
sense or structure of the sentence.
Do not begin a sentence with one structure and shift, be-
fore finishing it, to another structure.
Not clear: An automobile, unless you take good care of it, you
will soon have to repair it. (There is no verb to com-
plete the structure begun with automobile.)
Improved: An automobile will soon have to be repaired unless
good care is given to it.
Not clear: With these eleven men working together as a team
is the reason for our successful season.
Improved: With these eleven men working together as a team,
we had a successful season.
or
Because these eleven men worked together as a
team, we had a successful season.
62e. In formal writing, complete the thought after
so, such, those.
Informal: I was so bored.
Formal: I was so bored that I left the party.
Informal: He is one of those eccentric philosophers.
Formal: He is one of those eccentric philosophers who prefer
to be alone.
EXERCISE 10
Complete the sense of each of the following sentences
by adding the necessary words or by rewriting the sentence.
1. I have not spoken to Judith about your decision, nor will I.
2. All the money I spent for repairs, I could have bought a
new car.
3. The secretary and treasurer were both so excited by the
election.
4. It was a night that if one wore a sweater and skirt, she
could feel comfortable.
5. He was such a pleasant man and so universally admired.
321
WORD ORDER
6. The soldier asked us would we please tell him the road to
Washington.
7. When she went to the mailbox, she found the mail had not
yet arrived.
8. Anybody who could get 100 on that history test, the whole
class would think he was a genius.
9. I shall always be so grateful and appreciative of his kind-
ness to me.
10. Betty worried would we have so much trouble with the
heating system of the new house.
63. WORD ORDER
When you have learned to use modifiers properly, you are
beginning to build a mature style. Sometimes the modifier is
a single adjective or adverb, but often in a mature style
it is a phrase or a clause. If these modifiers are not placed
near the word which they modify, the sentence will lack
clarity. Sometimes misplaced modifiers make a sentence
sound absurd, as you can see from the following examples.
Vague: I hope that you received the road information nec-
essary for your emergency trip from the state police.
(Was he escaping from jail?)
Improved: I hope that you received from the state police the
road information necessary for your emergency trip.
Vague: Thank you for inviting me to the party on December
31 at ten o'clock in your club cellar. (What time is
it at my house when it is ten o'clock in the club
cellar? )
Improved: Thank you for inviting me to the party in your club
cellar at ten o'clock on December 31.
Vague: In the days of Leeuwenhoek, anyone who was work-
ing with science was thought to be "cracked" by the
public. (Because the phrase by the public is mis-
placed, the sentence has a ridiculous meaning.)
Improved: In the days of Leeuwenhoek, anyone who was work-
ing with science was thought by the public to be
"cracked."
322
WORD ORDER
63a. Do not misplace words such as only, hardly, and
even.
Vague: I only want to say a few words.
Improved: I want to say only a few words.
Vague: Since the guarantee on your radio only covers the
repair of the motor, we are unable to replace the
case.
Improved: Since the guarantee on your radio covers the repair
of the motor only, we are unable to replace the case.
Vague: We were even victorious in our game against South-
ern.
Improved: We were victorious even in our game against South-
em.
63b. Place phrases and clauses as close as possible to
the words which they modify.
Vague: Stewart lived with a friend whom he tiusted in a
small apaiiment. (Misplaced prepositional phrase)
Improved: Stewart lived in a small apartment with a friend
whom he trusted.
Vague: It gives me great pleasure to send you a little sou-
venir with my compliments, which I hope you will
find useful. (Misplaced adjective clause)
Improved: It gives me great pleasure to send you with mv
compliments a little souvenir, which I hope you will
find useful.
63c. Avoid squinting modifiers.
A modifier is said to be squinting when it may refer to
either of two parts of a sentence.
Vague: Students who cut classes frequently fall behind in
their studies. (This could mean either of two things.)
Improved: Frequently, students who cut classes fall behind in
their work.
Improved: Students who frequently cut classes fall behind in
their work.
323
WORD ORDER
EXERCISE 11
On your paper, rewrite the following sentences, placing
modifiers correctly.
1. We can only supply two of the items which you ordered.
2. In an eflFort to amuse me, the nurse put a hat on my head
made of a towel.
3. I worked for the Sewell Company during the entire vaca-
tion in the Boys' Department.
4. A small native boy was balancing a basket on his head held
down by a stone.
5. He even drives his car the two blocks to the drug store.
6. I prepared for the trip by putting the most comfortable
shoes I had on.
7. New houses will be built in our country which will be
heated by the sun.
8. I read a story in a magazine about a forest fire.
9. Some of the dancers carried huge baskets on their heads
which were filled with bright flowers.
10. Mother bought a coat for my sister with a fur lining.
11. We saw a house that we liked very much last week.
12. You cannot write a good report of an experiment in physics
unless you know how to arrange what you have to say in
clear sentences.
13. Your reply to our previous letters has not been received
concerning the $48.95 that still remains unpaid.
14. One night Silas fell into a mysterious sleep during a prayer
meeting which was mistaken for death.
15. The clown was wearing a bright blue and yellow sign on
his back advertising the side show,
16. The new manager settled himself behind his desk and told
the boys how he had made his fortune after lunch.
17. Most cars have sun visors above the windshield, which can
be adjusted to shade the eyes.
18. We have the shirts in stock that you inquired about in your
letter of May 15.
19. In order that the job may be done eflSciently, large bins are
distributed on this floor in which are placed different kinds
of cotton.
324
WORD ORDER
20. The manufacturer can only use the four pelts which you
sent to patch others.
21. I sent invitations to a party on Saturday, two weeks ago.
22. She told us to come at nine o'clock, and at ten she rescinded
the invitation.
23. There are three letters in this file which are poorly written.
24. I am sorry that you were refused the information that you
requested by a member of our company.
25. A representative is always on the grounds who will gladly
show the cottages.
EXERCISE 12
Follow the directions in Exercise 11.
1. I believe that I could fill the job that you offer competently
and eflBciently.
2. On the night of the blizzard, our representative was
swamped by inquiries from the members for assistance.
3. This morning I saw the man whose car sideswiped yours
in front of the bank.
4. I'm sure you share the problem of finding the right college
with me.
5. Several weeks ago I ordered five records from your com-
pany costing $20.70.
6. Thank you for returning the tire purchased recently for our
examination.
7. A statement of your account will be mailed to you on the
first of each month covering your purchases for the pre-
ceding month.
8. The factories in our town manufacture articles of great im-
portance such as airplanes and electronic equipment.
9. You will no doubt want to mail us your check promptly for
$135.
10. Only minor damage was found at the time of the inspection,
which could be repaired immediately.
11. Since the Clippers have only played two games, it is hard
to tell whether they have a good team.
12. You should not keep a dog that is used to a steam-heated
apartment in a doghouse.
325
WORD ORDER
13. The pioneer family owned a house which was really a cave
with a door and two bony oxen.
14. She saw a dress in the window of a department store which
she has made up her mind to buy.
15. Please let me know whether you can come to the party as
soon as possible.
16. I should like to thank you for the birthday gift with all my
heart.
17. We understand the disappointment you felt when you
opened the box and found the camera that you had been
waiting for broken.
18. In those days certain ideals were established which regu-
lated the pattern of the people's lives such as devotion to
home and love of personal freedom.
19. The period was called the Puritan Era because some people
had broken away from the Church of England who wanted
their religion simplified and purified.
20. The newspaper said: "Thanks are extended to all those who
generously gave donations and to the group who helped to
serve the refreshments which included four girl scouts."
EXERCISE 13
Follow the directions in Exercise 11.
1. In this new history of art, a number of artists are excluded
whom no editor can afford to neglect.
2. The book contains excellent reproductions of paintings by
many artists to the great delight of the reader.
3. The growth of the railroads diverted most of the freight
from the rivers on which the steamboat men depended.
4. Jane's absence from school was the result of a cold accom-
panied by a fever the day before yesterday.
5. We cannot stress the advantage of traveling with an estab-
lished firm too forcibly.
6. Driver-education classes are being taught in high school in
which any student may enroll.
7. More than a hundred animals of the city zoo escaped when
the attendants went on strike, roaming the streets and ter-
rifying residents.
326
SPLIT CONSTRUCTIONS
8. A careful study of these figures shows that there are 7,500,-
000 people in this state that use chewing gum.
9. Tests have been developed for some jobs that are indicative
of the possibilities of success which an individual may have.
10. We have made a tracing of the signature on the checks you
enclosed for our files, and we shall publish a warning about
this man's activities in our bulletin.
EXERCISE 14
On your paper, rewrite the following excerpt from a
travel itinerary. Place the modifiers in the positions that
make the sentences clear.
1. Cars will call at the hotels indicated when booking at about
9 A.M. 2. At the first stop, the party will embark in a "canoa"
propelled by the natives of the vicinity with long poles, for a
picturesque trip on the canals. 3. Then you will see the famous
palace built in 1530 by Cortes which is now the seat of the
local government. 4. You are requested neither to touch any-
thing nor sit in the old chairs. 5. The shopper will find some-
thing either to please himself or the folks at home, with ease.
6. Each resident of the United States is entitled to bring five
hundred dollars' worth of articles free of duty home.
64. SPLIT CONSTRUCTIONS
Parts of a sentence which are closely related gram-
matically should not be carelessly separated. No strict rule
about this principle can be made because sometimes it is
necessary to separate these parts. In general, however, these
rules can be followed.
64a. Avoid unnecessary separation of the parts of a
verb phrase.
Awkward: After he made a decision, he would, no matter what
the consequences might be, stick to his point.
Improved: After he made a decision, he would stick to his point,
no matter what the consequences might be.
327
«4b-d
SPLIT CONSTRUCTIONS
Awkward: This tree has, although you would not think so, been
here for thirty years.
Improved: Although you would not think so, this tree has been
here for thirty years.
64b. Avoid unnecessary separation of subject and
verb, verb and object, preposition and object.
Awkward: He, in one sweeping motion, threw both books and
newspapers on the Hoor.
Improved: In one sweeping motion, he threw both books and
newspapers on the floor.
64c. Keep parts of an infinitive together.
Many good writers use and defend a split infinitive. It
is true that in some constructions the spHt infinitive makes
a smoother or more emphatic sentence, but it may often
make an awkward sentence. Clearness and naturalness must
be the test.
Permissible: After we had caught a beautiful rainbow trout, we
went home to proudly display our prize. (Proudly
to display or to display proudly makes the sentence
stifiF.)
Unnecessary: The radio announcer told the audience to vigor-
ously applaud when he raised his hand.
Improved: The radio announcer told the audience to applaud
vigorously when he raised his hand.
64d. Keep coordinate sentence elements together.
Awkward: Although he was a good tennis player, he never
was ranked among the first ten, although he
practiced daily.
Right: Although he was a good tennis player and prac-
ticed daily, he never was ranked among the first
ten.
328
DANGLING MODIFIERS
EXERCISE 15
Rewrite these sentences, avoiding split constructions:
1. Shirley had, instead of doing her job, kept looking out of the
window.
2. When the war was over, Vincent bought a farm, after he had
come home.
3. In 1937 we added a new top story which was carefully
designed to, both in style and material, follow the original
structure.
4. When he, instead of building a house, built a barn, Mrs.
Perkins rebelled.
5. One man in the group told, when he saw Corsica, a story of
life on that island.
65. DANGLING MODIFIERS
A modifier is dangling when it is not clearly attached to
the word to which it refers. Many of these dangling
modifiers appear at the beginning of a sentence. They may
be phrases beginning with the present participle (arriving
late, walking across the campus), the past participle (ex-
hausted by the trip, overcome by his trouble ) , or the perfect
participle (having missed his train, having been paid);
they may be phrases that contain a gerund (after copying
my schedule, in examining the plans ) ; they may begin with
an infinitive ( to give better service, to finish the fob ) . Logi-
cally, they should be attached to the subject of the clause
that follows.
65a. Avoid dangling participial phrases. (See Section
6.)
Dangling: Opening the door, the odor of strong perfume struck
me at once. (The subject of the clause is odor, but
the odor did not open the door.)
Right: Opening the door, I smelled strong perfume. (The
subject of the clause is 7; the phrase is connected
logically with the word which it modifies.)
329
DANGLING MODIFIERS
As I opened the door, the odor of strong perfume
struck me at once. (The dangUng phrase is changed
to a clause.)
Dangling: Exhausted after the days work, it was difficult for
Betty to enjoy the evening. (Phrase with past parti-
ciple. )
Right: Exhausted after the day's work, Betty found it
difficult to enjoy the evening.
Because she was exhausted after the day's work, Betty
found it difficult to enjoy the evening.
Dangling: Sung by a good contralto, we thought that the music
sounded beautiful.
Right: Sung by a good contralto, the music sounded beautiful
to us.
65b. Avoid dangling gerund phrases. (See Section 6.)
Dangling: On examining the goods, they were found to be de-
fective.
Right: On examining the goods, we found them defective.
When the goods were examined, they were found to
be defective.
When we examined the goods, we found them de-
fective.
Dangling: After convincing Mr. Pressman of my ability, he hired
me.
Right: After convincing Mr. Pressman of my ability, I was
hired by him.
After I had convinced Mr. Pressman of my ability,
he hired me.
EXERCISE 16
On your paper, rewrite correctly any of the following sen-
tences that contain dangling phrases. If a sentence contains
no errors, write C beside the sentence number on your
paper.
1. After nagging my parents for two months, they agreed to let
me learn to drive.
2. Arriving late at night, all the lights in the house were out.
330
DANGLING MODIFIERS
3. Seeing a storm coming, we pulled down the sails.
4. Having examined all the plans with care, the one presented
by the Benders Company seemed best.
5. Being Saturday morning, the bus was crowded.
6. Hoping to overcome her awkwardness, Isabel went to danc-
ing school.
7. Walking across the dark road, the driver did not see me.
8. Having lost his fortune in some bad investments, his life
seemed completely ruined.
9. Handled carefully, a clever propagandist could make great
use of television.
10. After being told to take my morning bath, the clanging trays
announced breakfast in the hospital.
11. Looking inland, the first thing that we saw was a church
tower.
12. Reserved for high dignitaries, we could not occupy the
seats.
13. Instead of realizing a return on our investment, it is costing
us money to run the department.
14. By filing our cards according to the new system, another
clerk will have to be hired.
15. Before going to bed and upon arising, clothes and shoes had
to be examined for scorpions.
16. Established in 1890, the inn has always been owned by the
Pembroke family.
17. Pressing the button, the elevator went up to the tenth floor.
18. Respected by everybody who knows him, we shall have as
candidate for governor Mr. Jameson Harkness.
19. After forcing all opposition groups to vv'ithdraw from the
legislature, a new constitution was drafted.
20. Repelled by our army, the enemy withdrew to form a new
defense line.
21. Having been named chairman of the committee, a meeting
was called by Albert Delton.
22. Being interested in aviation, my course in physics has
helped me very much.
23. After seeing the circus, there was always pink lemonade for
the children.
24. By locating the factory on the third floor and the repair
331
65c-cl
DANGLING MODIFIERS
department on the second floor, greater convenience can
be given to our customers.
25. Drunk with power, it was impossible for the people to curb
their leader.
65c. Avoid dangling infinitive phrases.
Wrong: To avoid scrapping such expensive material, an adjust-
ment was made in the condenser.
Right: To avoid scrapping such expensive material, we made an
adjustment in the condenser.
Wrong: In order to keep the car in good condition, it was greased
every 1,000 miles.
Right: In order to keep the car in good condition, we had it
greased every 1,000 miles.
65d. Avoid dangling elliptical expressions.
An elliptical expression is one from which the subject or
verb or both have been omitted. Many elliptical clauses be-
gin with while or when.
Wrong: While swimming in a river near our farm, my clothes
were stolen by a tramp. (The italicized expression means
while I was swimming. In this sentence the clothes seem
to be swimming. )
Right: While 1 was swimming in a river near our farm, my
clothes were stolen by a tramp.
Right: While swimming in a river near our farm, I had my
clothes stolen by a tramp.
Wrong: When still a small child, his first appearance was made
on the stage.
Right: When still a small child, he made his first appearance on
the stage,
EXERCISE 17
On your paper, rewrite correctly any sentences containing
dangling infinitive phrases or dangling elliptical clauses.
If a sentence contains no error, write C beside its number on
your paper.
332
DANGLING MODIFIERS
1. While eating his lunch one day, land was sighted.
2. While walking home, her name was frequently mentioned.
3. When startled, the animal will fight fiercely.
4. In order to communicate with the president of the company,
a cablegram was sent.
5. Unless desirable, we do not list apartments.
6. While talking to a friend one day, he told me where I could
get a summer job.
7. While studying bookkeeping, Elaine was oflFered a job with
Crandon, Wells and Company.
8. To serve our customers more promptly, a new information
service has been set up.
9. When ten years old, his uncle died and left him a small
fortune.
10. As an employee of the Illinois Motor Club, we expect you
to follow the rules.
Note: The word due in formal English is usually considered
an adjective. Some writers today, however, use the ex-
pression due to as a preposition.
Adjective: His illness was due to overeating.
Preposition: He was ill due to overeating.
Caution:
1. Final participial modifiers beginning with thus often
make awkward constructions.
Awkward: We have just introduced a new filing system, thus
making everything easy to find.
Improved: Because we have introduced a new filing system, we
can now find everything more easily.
2. The absolute construction (noun or pronoun and
participle) is often awkward at the beginning of a sen-
tence if it contains a pronoun.
Awkward: He being a good salesman, we sent him to see Mr.
Eckels.
Improved: Because he is a good salesman, we sent him to see
Mr. Eckels.
333
DANGLING MODIFIERS
3. The participle being should not be followed by that;
nor should it be used as a conjunction.
Wrong: Being that it is a clear day, we can go for a hike.
Wrong: Being it's a clear day. . . .
Right: Since it is a clear day. . . .
Wrong: Being we lived at the shore all summer, I could practice
swimming every day.
Right: Because we lived at the shore all summer. . . .
Note: When a verbal is used to specify a general action, it
is not considered a dangling modifier: Generally speaking,
considering everything, judging from past experiences, and
similar expressions are often used without being attached to
any specific noun.
EXERCISE 18
On your paper, rewrite any sentences containing dangling
modifiers. If the sentence is correct, put C beside its number.
1. Passing the stadium, the place looked as if a football game
were in progress.
2. When walking the dog, he should be muzzled or kept on a
leash.
3. Coming from the dressmaker's, the bus was held up because
of an accident.
4. By going to college and gaining further knowledge, my
interests will change.
5. Upon examining the shirts which came back from the
laundry, it was clear that they had shrunk decidedly.
6. Knowing the excellent reputation of your linn, my surprise
was great when the suit shrank in the cleaning process.
7. Before adding antifreeze to your cooling system, your radia-
tor should be completely drained.
8. While searching through a pile of stage props the other day,
many strange objects were found.
9. Looking through the window of the Waldorf at the tall build-
ings of New York made me think of the strength of our
country.
334
DANGLING MODIFIERS
10. The other night while visiting some friends, the hostess
served some cookies and an unusual French ice cream.
11. While making a purchase at a drug store, a soft drink was
spilled on my coat.
12. If used for pulling plows and wagons, the nerves of these
fine horses would break.
13. When summoned, it was too late for him to help,
14. When spoken to, his mind worked slowly.
15. Exhausted by the struggle, his breath came rapidly.
16. Having never before been without transportation, my prob-
lem during my first year at art school was how to take my
girl to the movies.
17. Before starting out, a check of road conditions was made.
18. Although slightly more expensive, many of our customers tell
us that the new model is well worth the difference in price.
19. While still children, our beliefs are borrowed from the adults
around us.
20. While looking through a magazine in a doctor's office, a
tricky slogan caught my eye.
21. I told your clerk that while not a member of the A.A.A.,
the information was needed in an emergency.
22. When driven in this condition, the side walls of the tires may
be damaged.
23. Born into a famous medical family his father wanted George
to be a doctor.
24. Sulfanilamide remained unknown until its powers were dis-
covered while doing research on dogs.
25. By employing private detectives for police work at sporting
events and using policewomen as traffic officers, a large
number of policemen would be available for crime detection.
EXERCISE 19
On your paper, rewrite correctly any sentences containing
dangling modifiers. If a sentence contains no error, write C
beside its number on your paper.
1. After leaving the ship, the first thing that we noticed was the
strange birds.
335
DANGLING MODIFIERS
2. In addition to being interesting work, I feel that I am making
a contribution to public health.
3. While walking into the quiet ofiBce to apply for a job, my
shoes began to squeak.
4. Skilled in all kinds of executive work, it was easy for him
to get a job.
5. When making a golf stroke, the backswing is the first motion.
6. In order to progress, it was necessary for the company to go
into mass production.
7. After ceaselessly searching the newspapers and getting as-
sistance from several agents, we finally found an apartment.
8. One day while looking at the newspaper, my eyes fell on a
page that told of business opportunities in Alaska.
9. Looking back on my years of newspaper work, my last
assignment was decidedly the most stimulating.
10. Besides being a beautifully designed car, a businessman
with a small business can cut his delivery expenses in half.
11. By teaching an understanding of our government, it will be
possible to develop wise voters.
12. Being that the strike has interfered with production, we
cannot fill your order until March.
13. Looking at random through the many plans submitted, there
is a splendid one offered by the chamber of commerce.
14. He being one of our best customers, I should not want to
disappoint him.
15. Overcome by his numerous problems, his health failed
rapidly.
16. Acting on the advice of Mr. Sellers, Henry's report was
presented to the board of directors.
17. Having grown up in the business, it was hard for him to
leave.
18. Before starting to cook, all the necessary ingredients and
utensils should be placed within reach.
19. After having checked each item against the order, it is
packed in cartons and shipped.
20. She being our best stenographer, we gave her an increase in
salary.
21. Eveiything was measured with great care, being sure not to
make the smallest mistake.
336
MIXED AND ILLOGICAL CONSTRUCTIONS '^'^'— ^w
22. He was experienced in many kinds of business, thus helping
him to manage a business of his own.
23. We beheve that by appropriating larger funds for education,
the legislature would improve instruction in the schools.
24. Huge lights play like searchlights on the tops of people's
heads scampering to their places.
66. MIXED AND ILLOGICAL CONSTRUCTIONS
Every part of the sentence must agree with the other parts
in some logical way if the meaning of the sentence is to be
clear.
66a. Be sure that the subject makes sense in its rela-
tionship to the verbs.
Vague: The first case of smallpox dates back more than a
thousand years before the birth of Christ and has
gone unchecked until recently. (This sentence lacks
logic because it says that the first case of smallpox has
gone unchecked until recently.)
Improved: The first case of smallpox dates back more than a
thousand years before the birth of Christ, but only
recently has the disease been checked.
Vague: The time will be eight o'clock at my home and will be
informal.
Improved: The party will be at my home at eight o'clock and
will be informal.
66b. Every verb must have a clear-cut subject.
Vague: With a family to support makes his decision all the
more important.
Improved: His having a family to support makes his decision all
the more important.
66c. Adjust the form of an indirect quotation to the
rest of the sentence.
Awkward: The boy asked us would we give him a lift to Easton.
Improved: The boy asked us if we would give him a lift to
Easton.
337
^^^ MIXED AND ILLOGICAL CONSTRUCTIONS
66d. Avoid mixed constructions.
Mixed: Despite of what you say, I think you are wrong. {In
spite of is confused with despite.)
Improved: In spite of what you say, I think you are wrong.
or
Despite what you say, I think you are wrong.
66e. Avoid double negatives.
Awkward: I can't hardly see you.
Improved: I can hardly see you.
Awkward: He hasn't scarcely any money.
Improved: He has scarcely any money.
EXERCISE 20
On your paper, rewrite the following sentences, making
them logical:
1. Seeing youngsters running through the streets in dungarees
and loose shirts has become a familiar sight.
2. Eighteenth-century literature was a new and exciting period.
3. Eleanor wanted to know was I ever in China.
4. The book tells the story of a man who lost his money and
his struggle against poverty.
5. Her hair is blond, and her eyes are a clear gray with a cute
little nose and a dimpled chin.
6. I really don't know how to express the wonderful time I had
at your house.
7. During the strike the police force was reinforced with one
hundred men and orders to prevent violence.
8. The chairman read a letter from the mayor, who regretted
his inability to attend but "offer the class my congratula-
tions."
9. For class day the boys wear blue suits and white carnations
in their buttonholes.
10. I think the most interesting job next to a forest ranger would
be a game warden.
11. By conquering something, whether it be an opponent or a
skill, gives one a feeling of pride.
338
COMPAEISONS
«7a-b
12. The people in a modern democracy no longer consist of small
cities as they did in the days of Greek democracy.
13. It surprised us to find that Napoleon is the person most
frequently assumed by the mentally ill.
14. Tomorrow is my sister's engagement party.
15. With increasing size of cars is another reason why we have
parking problems.
67. COMPARISONS
The ability to make logical comparisons is often important
in achieving clarity in writing. The rules that follow will
help you to avoid making confusing or misleading com-
parisons.
67a. Compare only things of a similar nature.
Illogical: Unlike most seaside places, the food here is very
poor. (Food is compared to seaside places.)
Improved: Unlike most seaside places, this one does not serve
very good food.
Illogical: In the new school, the teachers were more friendly
than my old school.
Improved: The teachers in the new school were more friendly
than those in the old school.
Illogical: I like Kipling's poetry better than T. S. Eliot.
Improved: 1 like Kipling's poetry better than T. S. Eliot's.
67b. Avoid including within the class or group the
object or term being compared, if it is part of the
class or group. Use offier or else to exclude the object
being compared.
Wrong: Sanderson's Animal Treasure is better than any book I
have read recently. ( Since Animal Treasure is one of the
books that I have read, I am saying that it is better than
itself.)
Right: Sanderson's Animal Treasure is better than any other
book that I have read recently.
339
^*' COMPARISONS
67c. Use all, not any, with the superlative degree.
Wrong: Biology is the most enjoyable of any of my courses.
Right: Biology is the most enjoyable of all my courses.
67d. Complete the elements of one comparison before
another is introduced.
Awkward: Colonel Benton is one of the finest, if not the finest,
infantry oflBcer in our army.
Improved: Colonel Benton is one of the finest infantry oflBcers in
our army, if not the finest.
Awkward: Ralph is as clever if not more clever than Stanley.
Improved: Ralph is as clever as Stanley, if not more clever.
67e. Be sure that every comparison is clear.
Vague: I missed her more than Florence. (More than I missed
Florence or more than Florence missed her?)
Improved: I missed her more than Florence did.
or
I missed her more than I missed Florence.
EXERCISE 21
On your paper, rewrite these sentences, making the com-
parisons logical:
1. Salt Lake City is larger than any city in Utah.
2. Stanley Moore is one of the most successful, if not the most
successful, lawyer in town.
3. Unlike most hotels, the radio reception is powerful.
4. Although the baseball team in Richmond cannot compare
with New York, the people enjoy watching it.
5. Our posters are prettier than any posters in the contest.
6. The number of hotel rooms that Boston could offer us for
the convention was larger than any city.
7. Marianne learned to love her nurse better than her mother.
8. Flowers from Kirkwood are fresher than any florist in town.
9. Crop conditions in all parts of the country have been more
favorable than last year.
10. I think that he is funnier than anybody I've ever seen.
340
COMPARISONS
11. I am happy to tell you that the Prisoners' Aid Association is
about to enter a period of as great usefulness or greater than
any in its history.
12. The food of our merchant seamen is as good as any marine
group in the world, but our operating costs are higher than
any country.
13. The early settler knew more about planting than the Indians.
14. Edith likes oranges better than any fruit.
15. I have no interest nor desire to learn to play golf.
EXERCISE 22
Many of the following sentences lack coherence as a result
of violations of principles explained in Sections 62-67. Re-
view these sections. Then on your paper, rewrite the sen-
tences. If a sentence needs no correction, write C beside its
number on your paper.
1. Walking down the hall, my eye was attracted by a painting.
2. The principal asked us were we interested in getting summer
jobs.
3. Jim told me that one day last week he stayed in school until
5:30.
4. Walter Reed's work differed from other scientists because he
used people instead of animals for his experiments.
5. Her antique furniture is more beautiful than any furniture in
our community.
6. The best autobiography of all is Benjamin Franklin.
7. Choose the presents you bring into a hospital with care.
8. I only saw small fish swimming in a fish bowl at first glance.
9. Not being able to read, his only source of news would be
through the radio and television.
10. The woman took a sleeping tablet which made her relax
completely, in hot milk.
11. Every week the boys would have races to see whose boat
was the fastest in a nearby quarry.
12. The game being Friday night, we had to leave Friday noon.
13. In early England, the actors were the monks who performed
in the church but later grew into private enterprise.
341
PARALLEL STRUCTURE
14. While living in the serene, hospitable atmosphere of New
Haven, Connecticut, the minor arts and social graces were
cultivated.
15. Preston SproU is as good if not better than any electrical
engineer in the city.
16. We asked Mrs. Hunter would she serve on the committee for
the church supper.
17. Sally said, "Oh, Mother, I saw a squirrel coming home from
school today."
18. Edmund Burke seems to me greater than any other English
statesman of his day.
19. His experiences with the people in China were like all
doctors who spend years among alien people.
20. The date has been set and the invitations for the wedding
sent out.
21. Mr. Lansdale, as a result of studying for many years, was
able to speak five languages.
22. A person who budgets his allowance toward the end of the
month has money.
23. Recalled to office by an emergency situation, it was necessary
for Mr. Hammond to rearrange completely all his business
affairs.
24. After 1666 there was no epidemic of plague in London,
though a few cases appear in the records up to 1679, and
finally disappeared in 1703.
25. You are so hazy that 1 can't understand anything very well
that you say.
68. PARALLEL STRUCTURE
Sentences may be unified and clear and yet be ineffective.
Some of the principles that make effective sentences are
discussed in Sections 68-72. See also Section 51 on vs^ordi-
ness.
Parallel structure means the use of "like construction for
like ideas." Sentences do not always have to be arranged
in an absolutely parallel structure, but such an arrangement
often gives clarity and force.
342
PARALLEL STRUCTURE
68a. Use the same structure on both sides of a coordi-
nating conjunction {and, but, or).
Ineffective: The movie actress told the reporters that she hkes
sioimming and to drive. (Here the conjunction and
joins a gerund, swimming, and an infinitive, to
drive. )
Improved: The movie actress told the reporters that she likes
swimming and driving. (Or to swim and to drive)
Ineffective: I had the rugs taken up in order to clean the floor
and for coolness in summer. (Infinitive phrase and
prepositional phrase)
Improved: I had the rugs taken up in order to clean the floor
and to make the house cool in summer. (Infinitive
phrase and infinitive phrase)
Ineffective: We decided to telephone you and that we could
then tell you all the news. (Infinitive phrase and
subordinate clause)
Improved: We decided to telephone you and tell you all the
news. (Two infinitives)
68b. Be particularly careful not to join a relative clause
and an independent clause by and, but, or. Do not use
and which, but which, and who, but who, unless there
is a preceding "which" clause or "who" clause.
Ineffective: Jessie is a person of strong will and who always
gets her own way.
Improved: Jessie has a strong will and always gets her own way.
or
Jessie has such a strong will that she always gets her
own way.
or
Jessie is a person who has a strong will and who
always gets her own way.
68c. Keep the members of a series in the same con-
struction.
Ineffective: She is tall, slender, and a girl of great beauty.
Improved: She is tall, slender, and very beautiful.
343
■*y PARALLEL STRUCTUEE
Ineffective: He took a job as clerk, salesman, and mixing sodas.
Improved: He took a job as clerk, salesman, and soda mixer,
68d. Keep the members of a list in the same con-
struction.
As a result of its study, the committee recommended the
following:
1. To move the storage room to the first floor.
2. To employ an additional clerk for the filing depart-
ment.
3. To arrange typists' desks in one room.
4. We should provide a lounge for women.
The fourth item in the preceding list is a sentence and is
therefore not parallel with the infinitive phrases of the other
three items. It should read:
4. To provide a lounge for women.
68e. Use the same structure on both sides of a cor-
relative.
In a structure involving neither . . . nor (either . . .
or), the same part of speech that follows neither (either)
should follow nor (or).
Faulty: She had neither completed her English nor her
Spanish.
Improved: . She had completed neither her English nor her
Spanish.
Faulty: He is either lazy or he doesn't feel well.
Improved: He is either lazy or ill.
EXERCISE 23
On your paper, rewrite the following sentences, using
parallel structure where it is required:
1. Dolores has studied filing, bookkeeping, and how to type.
2. Harold is intelligent, honest, and a man of genuine ability.
344
PARALLEL STRUCTURE
3. The family decided to rent a cottage at the beach and that
Sally and I could use it for a month.
4. I do not know anybody more capable than you or who I
feel is better qualified for the job.
5. We suggest either selling the lamps at a lower price or that
you return them to the factory.
6. Harris tried to decide whether he should go to college or to
enter his father's business.
7. I shall always remember the good times you gave me, the
rides, the swims, and especially that you taught me to handle
a surfboard.
8. A successful salesman has the following qualities: pleasant-
ness, be courteous, dress properly, be helpful.
9. We regret being unable to ship the order at once and that
we must ask you to be patient.
10. I'm sorry that I haven't written to you for some time, but
I have been very busy in school and doing my homework at
night.
11. To want a new dress for the dance and not being able to
get it can spoil a girl's weekend.
12. The housewife is always busy, for she must do the dishes and
buy the food as well as sweeping, dusting, and cooking.
13. In department stores there are jobs in buying departments,
merchandising, stock management, adjustment managers,
bookkeepers, and window dressers.
14. In Shakespeare's day people with well-known names and
who had plenty of money would send servants to the
theater to save seats for them.
15. Mexican opals are famous for their brilliance and because
they are durable.
16. The travelers had many thrilling experiences crossing desert
territory and into unknown lands.
17. It is a question of either reducing our overhead, or we
must find new outlets for our product.
18. Driver education teaches students to become better drivers
by obeying traffic laws, never to exceed speed limits, and
always to watch signals.
19. Use your horn to signal other cars that you are about to
pass or as a courteous warning to pedestrians.
345
PARALLEL STRUCTURE
20. The two soldiers were ordered dishonorably discharged from
the army and to forfeit all pay and allowances.
21. Jay's father spent fifteen days teaching him to park a car,
the hand signals, and the fundamentals of driving.
22. Since Mr. Emory knows our merchandise very well, he will
be able to discuss with you the materials handled by us
and which will be usable in your business.
23. A Sunday song festival has been organized by the Mexican
government and will be presented in Chapultepec Park
as a treat for the strollers and to glorify the folk songs of the
country.
24. "Ham" radio operators are always ready to give their
services in case of disaster and when normal communications
fail.
25. Too many people go to college for football, to have fun,
to find a husband, or for the purpose of putting ofiF the evil
dav "/hen they must go to work.
EXERCISE 24
Follovi^ the directions in Exercise 23.
1. At school I studied history, algebra, and how to cook.
2. The artist is a man of genuine talent and who has had ex-
cellent art training.
3. In his youth, Dickens saw people poverty-stricken, hungry,
and they were afraid of debtors' prisons.
4. We bought a new ventilator for the kitchen to take away the
odors of cooking and for greater comfort for my mother.
5. The lyric passages of the symphony were played poetically
and with sensitivity.
6. People leaving school to help support their families and still
wish to continue their education should have careful advice
from counselors.
7. When Tess moved to a new town, she became careless about
her appearance and a sloppy worker.
8. Our representative will show you our new products, assist
you with current sales, and an opportunity will be given
to examine our advertising.
9. We regret not being able to fill your order and that you were
not notified sooner.
346
PARALLEL STRUCTURE
10. When I asked for highway information, I told your repre-
sentative of the emergency and that I was not a member of
the A.A.A.
11. At our school the method of instruction involves lectures,
reading long assignments, and to review carefully for the
tests.
12. Statistics show that most women work because of financial
need or to raise the living standard of the family.
13. Women often work outside the home with no serious damage
to their husbands' happiness, their children's welfare, or how
their homes are kept.
14. The modern mother studies budgeting, child training, and
how to prepare carefully balanced meals.
15. You will find enclosed an illustrated booklet explaining the
art of spin fishing and which contains directions for the
proper care of your reel.
16. We can improve the cafeteria by doing several things: less
noise, replacing chairs, we should leave the tables clean,
and hanging hats on racks.
17. The government publication described the growth habits
of poison ivy, how to recognize it, and how to combat it.
18. The pictures taken from the air are indispensable for the
study of existing conditions and to improve city planning.
19. Employees with ideas are invited to the meetings so that
they can be present during the discussion of their ideas
and to get help in the presentation of their materials.
20. During the training week, the new salespeople were taught
store policy, methods of selling, proper business manners,
and how to write sales checks.
21. Selling merchandise, meeting people from various walks of
life, and an opportunity to test my knowledge of sales
psychology were a real challenge in my new job.
22. The report recommended the following:
1. Calling in all 3% bonds
2. We should build a new plant in Milwaukee
3. To close out the manufacture of fai-m machinery
4. To increase the sales force
23. Our new cutlery, the result of years of research, is guaranteed
to retain sharpness, it will not stain, and it cannot rust.
347
^» POINT OF VIEW
24. The new handle gives these advantages:
1. No shpping even if hands are wet ,
2. Safe to use
3. Prevents cramping of fingers
25. The mayor says his administration has been responsible for
these improvements:
1. Five low-income housing projects have been con-
structed
2. Three new schools
3. Employment of new director of traflBc
4. Repairing poor streets in downtown area
69. POINT OF VIEW
A sentence loses its strength and confuses the reader if it
contains shifts in construction.
69a. Avoid unnecessary shifts in tense.
Weak: Dick ran quickly to the end of the beach and jumps
into the water. {Ran is past tense; jumps is present
tense. )
Im.proved: Dick ran quickly to the end of the beach and jumped
into the water.
69b. Avoid unnecessary shifts in subject.
Weak: The garbage is collected, and then the citij converts
it into fertilizer.
Improved: The city collects the garbage and converts it into
fertilizer.
Improved: The garbage is collected and converted into fertilizer
by the city.
69c. Avoid careless shifts in voice.
Weak: I learned how to accommodate customers, and the
stock was kept dusted and orderly. ( Learned is active
voice; was kept is passive. )
Improved: I learned how to accommodate customers and to keep
the stock dusted and orderly.
348
POINT OF VIEW
69cl. Avoid unnecessary shifts in mood.
Weak: Make your decision, and then you ought to stick to
it. {Make is imperative; ought is indicative.)
Improved: Make your decision and then stick to it.
69e. Avoid unnecessary shifts in person or number.
The error here also involves a shift in pronoun reference
and violates the general principle that pronouns and
antecedents agree in person. (See Section 12.) This error
occurs most frequently when the writer shifts from the third
person to the inappropriate second person you.
Weak: If one studies hard enough in high school, you will
have no trouble with college subjects.
Improved: If one studies hard enough in high school, he will
have no trouble with college subjects.
EXERCISE 25
On your paper, rewrite the following sentences, correct-
ing shifts in construction:
1. Elaine fell in love with Lancelot, but he finally tells her that
he could not marry her.
2. In the junior high school, the students were treated like
babies; but in the senior high school, we are expected to
assume some responsibility.
3. First mix the ingredients carefully; then the pan should be
greased.
4. Not only did I go to school in the daytime, studied at night,
and worked on weekends, but time was found for athletics.
EXERCISE 26
Some of the sentences in the following selection contain
incorrect shifts in the tenses of verbs. On your paper, re-
write such sentences correctly.
1, My first visit to the circus, ten years ago, was a thrilling ex-
perience. 2. I loved the smell of roasting peanuts, the sight of
349
■ COORDINATION AND SUBORDINATION
the delicious pink and orange lemonade, the crackling popcorn,
and the funny old clown. 3. I was so excited that I want to see
everything at once, the roaring lions, the clumsy elephants, and
the trained seals that acted as if they were almost human. 4.
Then there is the fat lady, who must have weighed at least five
hundred, or the thin man, who looks as if one could push him
over with a little finger. 5. The freaks were really a pitiful sight,
but I gaze in admiration at the strong man, who was the image
of Atlas. 6. And now I want food, hot dogs, lemonade, peanuts.
7. Somehow, at the circus they taste so much better than when
I bought them in the corner store. 8. To top off that perfect
afternoon, there is a ride on the Ferris wheel. 9. Everyone was
so gay that all troubles are forgotten the minute one walks into
the circus grounds. 10. The band keeps playing a cheery tune
in order to keep everyone in a gay mood, but no band is necessary
to keep my spirits up when the circus tents are near.
70. COORDINATION AND SUBORDINATION
Inexperienced writers have a tendency to join all clauses
with and or but. As a result, their writing is ineffective be-
cause it does not show the proper relationship between
ideas. Ideas are presented as if they were all statements of
equal value. Actually, in any thinking, some ideas are the
cause of others; some are the result of others; some exist only
if others exist. Showing this relationship of cause, result, or
condition is called subordination. It is important to put in
coordinate structure only those ideas which are really equal.
Other ideas should be subordinated by means of the
appropriate subordinating conjunction.
70a. Avoid too frequent use of coordinating con-
junctions. (See Sections 59 and 60.)
Immature: George bought a new automobile, and it had free
wheeling, and there was a radio.
Improved: George bought a new automobile which had free
wheeling and a radio.
Immature: The meals in camp were dreadful, and how anybody
ate them, I'll never know.
350
COORDINATION AND SUBORDINATION ^T ^#l9^Cl
Improved: The meals in camp were so dreadful that I don't
know how anybody ate them.
70b. Select the conjunction carefully.
Do not use and ii a contrast is needed.
Weak: All the inhabitants except seven were rescued, and
timberland valued at $30,000,000 was lost. (Here is a
contrast between what was saved and what was lost. Use
but as the connective.)
Weak: The Severn team was one of the best that we faced, and
we lost by a score of 35-0. (Use consequently as the
connective. Remember to use a semicolon when two in-
dependent clauses are joined by a conjunctive adverb.)
70c. Avoid inaccurate and false coordination.
Do not use a coordinating conjunction to join an in-
dependent clause and a dependent clause. (See Section
68b.)
Inaccurate: The nurse was a pleasant person and was well
trained, but who was a failure.
Improved: The nurse was a pleasant person and was well
trained, but she was a failure.
70d. Avoid too many subordinate clauses in one
sentence.
Confused: We talked by phone with our representative in your
town who told us that at the time of your recent
snowstorm, he received so many inquiries concern-
ing road conditions that since he was the only man
in the office, they could not all be handled and
information which the people wanted was given to
members only.
Improved: Our representative in your town told us that the
recent snowstorm brought to his office a great many
inquiries about road conditions. Because he was the
only man in the office, he was obliged to answer the
inquiries of members only.
351
Tl
EMPHASIS THROUGH POSITION AND ARRANGEMENT
EXERCISE 27
On your paper, rewrite the following paragraph. Make the
sentences more effective by using coordination and subor-
dination and by using conjunctions that show accurately
the relationship between the ideas. Make any changes in
wording that you think will help to express the ideas
logically. If necessary, join sentences that are now separate.
1. Wolfgang Mozart was a great musician and has contributed
much to the artistic life of today; but when he was a small boy,
his father was eager to have him succeed as a musician and
took him on a tour of the capitals of Europe, and here he
received great acclaim. 2. He started on this tour when he was
only seven years old; so the court and intellectuals praised him
highly. 3. Although he wrote his first opera when he was only
twelve, he went to Italy when he was thirteen. 4. However, he
was honored by the Pope and packed the opera house in this
country. 5. On most of these journeys, he was accompanied by
his father and who was also a musician. 6. He returned to Salz-
burg and had trouble with the new archbishop, and no definite
job was offered him although many places commissioned him to
write music for them. 7. Wolfgang later fell in love with a girl
who was the daughter of a musician; and his father, who did
not want him to marry at this time, sent him to Paris in order
to keep him away from the girl. 8. The young musician had
many problems. 9. He composed matchless operas, symphonies,
and chamber music.
71. EMPHASIS THROUGH POSITION
AND ARRANGEMENT
Not all sentences are meant to be emphatic. A writer must
learn to judge the tone of his work and emphasize what he
wishes to have stand out in the mind of the reader. If he
is dealing with material that should give a chatty, casual,
or dreamy effect, emphasis is unimportant. For strength in
writing, however, some attention to rules for emphasis is
necessary.
352
EMPHASIS THROUGH POSITION, ARRANGEMENT ^ iCi^^
71a. Place at the beginning or the end af a sentence
words or ideas to be emphasized.
Every sentence, o£ course, has a word at the beginning
and a word at the end. These words are not necessarily
emphasized if the sentence follows the usual subject-verb-
complement order. For special emphasis a word, phrase, or
clause may be taken out of its usual position and placed
at the beginning or end of the sentence.
Unemphatic: You are certainly not going skating in this weather.
Emphatic: Certainly you are not going skating in this weather.
In this weather you are certainly not going skating.
Unemphatic: People in England drive on the left-hand side in-
stead of on the right-hand side.
Better: Instead of driving on the right-hand side, people
in England drive on the left.
71b. Repeat words to be stressed.
Occasional repetition of words will emphasize their im-
portance. Do not, however, make a habit of repetition. ( See
Section 51.)
Give: Give money when people are hungry. Give sym-
pathy when a man suffers. Give time to participate in
the aflFairs of your community. Give your whole self
to help the ideal of peace.
Repetition is frequently used in business v^riting.
Do you want comfort? Buy at Oakleigh. Do you want
refined neighbors? Buy at Oakleigh. Do you want
beauty? Buy at Oakleigh. Oakleigh will satisfy every
need of discriminating people.
71c. Use the active voice for emphasis.
Acceptable: The party was enjoyed by all of us.
Stronger: All of us enjoyed the party.
353
71cl-e
EMPHASIS THROUGH POSITION, ARRANGEMENT
71 d. Use periodic sentences occasionally.
A periodic sentence is one in which the meaning is not
completed until the end. The type of sentence which could
end at one or more places before the actual end of the
sentence is called a loose sentence.
Periodic: Because city driving is very complicated, it is im-
portant to keep in the right line of traffic.
Loose: It is important to keep in the right line of traflBc be-
cause city driving is very complicated.
Too frequent use of either type of sentence is not de-
sirable. Frequent use of periodic sentences gives a distinctly
formal tone to the writing.
EXERCISE 28
On your paper, rewrite the following loose sentences,
making them periodic:
1. Florence Nightingale faced problems of oflBcial etiquette and
red tape when she tried to improve conditions for the wounded
soldiers at Scutari. 2. She was months completing jobs that
should have been done in days if she had not been obliged to
follow an elaborate set of rules. 3. Finally she took things into her
own hands and ignored the time-consuming rules. 4. The
wounded were made clean and comfortable only after great effort
by this brave woman. 5. She is called the founder of the nursing
profession because of the great work that she did in the Crimean
War.
71 e. Use balanced sentences occasionally.
A balanced sentence is one in which several parts are of
similar length and structure. This type of sentence is partic-
ularly useful as a means of making contrast effective.
Judith is fat; Marilyn is thin.
Honesty recommends that I speak; self-interest demands
that I remain silent.
Severity breeds fear, but roughness breeds hate.
354
VARIETY OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE
71ff-72
EXERCISE 29
On your paper, write a balanced sentence based on the
contrast in each of the following pairs:
1. travel by automobile — travel by airplane
2. living in the city — living in the country
3. academic course — commercial or technical course
4. beauty of the sea — beauty of the mountains
5. flower garden — vegetable garden
71 f. Arrange ideas in the order of their importance.
Building up to a climax is effective if the device is used
only occasionally. It is especially valuable in speeches.
I call upon you to give your money, your time, your lives,
for peace.
That man has lost his money, ruined his home, destroyed
his honor.
EXERCISE 30
On your paper, rewrite each of the following sentences in
climactic order:
1. The organization is dishonest, incompetent, and out-of-date.
2. Florence Nightingale found that the wounded soldiers had
little care, that the hospitals were filled with a dreadful stench,
and that the floors were filthy.
3. She asked for cleanliness, medical care, and ventilation.
4. She appealed to the Minister of War himself, to doctors, to
nurses.
5. So great has been her accomplishment for humanity that the
simple people have given her memory attention, adoration,
honor.
72. VARIETY OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Sentences cannot be effective if they are monotonous in
structure. A good writer varies the length, the word order,
and the form of his sentences according to the mood of the
piece of writing.
355
I VARIETY OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE
72a. Vary the beginnings of sentences.
The easiest way to write is to begin each sentence with
the subject, but a paragraph written entirely in this style
would be very dull.
The following examples show different ways of beginning
sentences. Notice that there are two sentences in each pair.
The first sentence in each pair begins with the subject; the
second begins with some other construction.
1. Begin some sentences with a subordinating conjunction.
Sentence beginning with subject:
Florence Nightingale gave up an easy life of wealth and
position when she decided to become a nurse.
Sentence beginning with subordinating conjunction:
When she decided to become a nurse, Florence Nightin-
gale gave up an easy life of wealth and position.
2. Begin some sentences with a prepositional phrase.
Sentence beginning with subject:
Women in those days were expected to spend their time
on simple household tasks.
Sentence beginning with prepositional phrase:
In those days, women were expected to spend their time
on simple household tasks.
3. Begin some sentences with a participial phrase.
Sentence beginning with stibject:
Miss Nightingale won her point only after struggling,
working, and planning for years.
Sentence beginning with participial phrase:
Having struggled, worked, and planned for years. Miss
Nightingale won her point.
356
VARIETY OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE It 2ll9""C
4. Begin some sentences with an infinitive.
Sentence beginning with subject:
She found it necessary to fight her family and pubhc
opinion in order to carry on her work.
Sentence beginning with infinitive:
To carry on her work, she had to fight her family and
public opinion.
5. Begin some sentences with an adjective. This is a device
overworked in some magazines. Use it sparingly.
Sentence beginning with subject:
Florence Nightingale, a vigorous woman, visited hospitals
in many countries.
Sentence beginning with adjective:
Vigorous and determined, Florence Nightingale visited
hospitals in many countries.
72b. Avoid frequent use of f/iere is, ihere are, it is.
Monotonous: In some of the coastal towns, there are very primi-
tive conditions. There are mud huts shaded only
by a few sick-looking palms. When there is a
breeze, clouds of dust blow through the streets.
Improved: In some of the coastal towns, very primitive con-
ditions exist. Mud huts, shaded only by a few
sick-looking palms, are covered with clouds of
dust whenever a breeze blows.
72c. Use some relative clauses in the middle of sen-
tences.
Simple sentences: Miss Sauers has just returned from a trip to
Paris. She is a fashion expert for the Bentz
Company.
Combined: Miss Sauers, who is a fashion expert for the
Bentz Company, has just returned from Paris.
357
72cl-ff
VARIETY OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE
72cl. Use an occasional noun clause. (See Section 7.)
That some of the costumes were overloaded with decora-
tion surprised her very much.
TJiat she would he able to sell these costumes in the
United States was doubtful.
72e. Use an absolute phrase at the end of a sentence.
(See Section 23o.)
All the men of the small South American town came to
meet the boat, their dogs and pigs following behind
them.
The natives dived from the little boats, their brown bodies
gleaming in the sun.
72f. Vary the length and form of sentences.
Any type of sentence used too frequently makes a piece
of writing monotonous. Use a variety of simple, compound,
complex, compound-complex sentences. (See Section 8.)
Use some loose, some periodic, and some balanced sen-
tences. (See Section 71.)
EXERCISE 31
On your paper, rewrite the following paragraph to make
it eflFective. Vary the sentence structure, choosing the types
of sentences that will suit the mood of the material. If it is
necessary to add some connecting links, do so. The order of
details may be rearranged.
There are primitive conditions in some of the coastal towns
of Venezuela. They are unbelievable. These towns are not far
from a sophisticated city like Caracas or a bustling commercial
port like La Guaira. In some of these cities there is not a tree
except the tall palm. It has only a few sick-looking fronds at the
top. Dust blows in clouds whenever there is a breeze. There are
one-room houses. They are made of mud. They are painted blue
or pink or lavender. They have only dirt floors. Sometimes the
dirt is not even leveled off. The walls have simply been thrown
358
VARIETY OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE
up over rough ground. There is httle furniture. Every house has
a hammock. A hammock is more comfortable than a bed. The
heat is very great. Most houses have also a Singer sewing
machine. The Singer men must be great salesmen. There are no
tables, no chairs. The people wear few clothes. The Singer
man still sells his sewing machine. Children are often naked
until they are eight or nine years old. Their diets are poor. They
run through the dusty streets. Scrawny dogs, pigs, and chickens
play with the children. They all live together in the mud huts.
EXERCISE 32
Follow the directions in Exercise 31.
One of the most important writers of the eighteenth century
was Samuel Johnson. He was the son of a bookseller. He read
many of the books in his father's shop. He was desperately poor
when he went to college. He was very proud. Once somebody
felt sorry for Samuel and placed a new pair of shoes at the
poor boy's door. Samuel spurned the gift. Many things that he
did were strange, but he became practically a literary dictator
of London. He is remembered today chiefly as the author of a
dictionary and the founder of the famous Literary Club. Sig-
nificant men in art, literature, politics, and economics were
members of the club. They dined heartily and talked. The
brilliance of Johnson's conversation is recorded in one of the
greatest biographies in English. It is The Life of Samuel
Johnson by James Boswell. Boswell was a member of the club.
David Garrick, a great actor, Edmund Burke, a great statesman,
Oliver Goldsmith, an important writer, were also members of
the club. The literary influence of the club was great. All
London speedily knew its opinion of a new book. All London
respected its opinion. It is said that these men could cause a
whole edition of a book to sell in one day.
EXERCISE 33
Follow the directions in Exercise 31.
A very exciting thing has happened in our town. A circus has
set up winter quarters. The animals are being trained here for
359
■ ACHIEVEMENT TESTS ON THE SENTENCE
the show in the spring. The circus owners saw a chance to make
some extra money and put some of their animals on a television
show. The owner's granddaughter was on television with them.
She is an elephant trainer. She is said to be the youngest
elephant trainer in the world. Many people saw the television
show. They became interested in the place where the animals are
trained. They rushed to the winter quarters to watch. The
circus people decided to charge a small fee for seats. The circus
is making many friends, and we are having a great time.
73. ACHIEVEMENT TESTS
ON THE SENTENCE
The first test is easy and deals only with the most im-
portant principles discussed in the material on the sentence.
Review very carefully Sections 55-72. Then take the test.
If you do well, take the more difficult test that follows.
73a. Achievement Test I.
On your paper, rewrite any of the following sentences that
need revision. Make the sentences correct, clear, and efiFec-
tive. After each sentence, tell briefly why you have cor-
rected it. A sentence may need more than one correction.
Some sentences may be right. If you find a sentence that
seems to you correct, write the number of the sentence
and then write C beside the number.
Example:
Sentence: 1. After receiving first aid, the camp oflBcials rushed
me to a hospital.
Correction: 1. After receiving first aid, I was rushed to a hos-
pital by the camp oflBcials. Dangling modifier.
1. The fat man made the commercial announcements then he
introduced the master of ceremonies.
2. I could not believe that I was to have a coat with a real
fur collar at the age of sixteen.
3. Do remind me to show you the picture that I took of the
chief of the Indian village when you come to Boston.
360
ACHIEVEMENT TESTS ON THE SENTENCE
4. According to my history book, in some cities the employment
situation was very bad. So that many people had to stand in
bread lines.
5. Some students do not go to college for the purpose of learn-
ing or to prepare for a profession.
6. For the sake of simplifying the handling of our accovints and
to keep our records up to date, we should appreciate prompt
payment.
7. It was the general opinion that the new law permitted the
appointment of influential people to the board who could
not participate in its work actively.
8. My cousin's engagement party was better than any party
I have gone to.
9. At seven o'clock work begins, and we start filling the molds
with ice cream after two and a half hours of steady work,
there is a fifteen-minute break.
10. I was the driver of a light tank. One of the ten that were
sent immediately to the front.
11. I have learned by experience to try to avoid serious argu-
ments with good friends. Because it is very easy to ruin a
friendship by arguing.
12. Even though the old lady behaves in a peculiar way does
not prove she is crazy.
13. We cleaned the house and hung the curtains, and in a little
while the other tasks were completed.
14. Some people gave up their freedom to gain a degree of
protection. To be free from the worry of making decisions.
15. Nothing hurt me except the night before the operation I had
pains in my back.
16. After calling for help many times, some coast guards heard
the cries and went to rescue the children.
17. During the holidays we entertained not only our relatives
but also our friends.
18. The colors are wine, navy, blue, and red. Sizes nine through
fourteen.
19. Besides studying bookkeeping, we learned business organiza-
tion.
20. The light on the table is much brighter than the light on my
desk.
361
ACHIEVEMENT TESTS ON THE SENTENCE
21. Being embarrassed at such an unusual situation, her face
became red.
22. The first rays of dawn were reflected in the still, calm lake
and shone on the rolling, barren hills which supported only
dry, burnt grass with occasional groves of pine or blackjack
oak which, together with the weather-beaten rocks, gave a
strange appearance.
23. Doris's house is larger than any place in the community.
24. Edith, although she was terribly frightened, managed to
run to the telephone.
25. In examining our correspondence carefully, there is no record
of your letter.
73b. Achievement Test IL
Follow the directions for Test I.
1. The trip in the funicular railroad terrified me, I seemed to be
flying in mid-air.
2. In my job I have learned to sell and work with many kinds
of people.
3. I agree to drive with Walter to Maine and then that I should
return alone by train.
4. Instead of campaigns, bazaars, tag days, and other energy-
wasting drives which often did not produce even minimum
funds for welfare work.
5. While moving to the next group of cages, a loud bark broke
the quietness of the zoo.
6. The manager warned the new employees to be on time, that
they should obey orders, and he expected them to be regular
in attendance at work.
7. Being made of glued plywood, the life of a prefabricated
house is less than a standard frame house.
8. Of the prisoners eligible for parole, sixty-three were not
recommended because they were bad risks, no jobs waiting
for them, or there were not enough parole officers.
9. When approaching the pylon at night, the safety zone was
difficult to see.
10. Stanford's course in clear thinking will help him to evaluate
what he reads and to make logical decisions.
362
ACHIEVEMENT TESTS ON THE SENTENCE
11. Passing the stadium, the crowd reminds us of a football day.
12. The purpose of the club is to promote better understanding
between the faculty and the students and for improvement
of the building and campus.
13. His sources of income consist of the following: owner of a
small vegetable market, and for the past four years he has
been manager of a produce department.
14. Although it was a beautiful morning with the sun shining
brightly, I left the house with a feeling of optimism.
15. The salesman told Mrs. Banks that the factory could not
make the pair of shoes that she wanted and would she
consider buying another type?
16. The principal asked me to secure for Dr. Brown and the
State Department of Education the books on this list.
17. Mrs. Carter was once a great singer and applauded by the
whole country.
18. I like Helen better than Eva.
19. Leon is the most popular of any boys in his class.
20. We approached the city with great interest, it was not a
small city with narrow streets, as we had expected, but a
large city with towering skyscrapers.
21. Although man has been able to invent such destructive forces
as the atomic bomb, he has also found some new drugs which
are very eflFective and some instruments that help greatly
in wartime like the rheostat, which can locate a bullet in a
man which cannot be located in the usual way.
22. Recendy I read where plastic surgery really got its start in
the Franco-Prussian War.
23. Carefully trained at a special school for dogs, we think that
our Irish setter is the best-behaved dog in the neighborhood.
24. The building program of the hospital calls for the remodel-
ing of the operating suite, expanded kitchen and dining room
services, and beds arranged with more space between them.
25. The furniture was dusted and the ornaments washed in
preparation for the party to be given tomorrow and which
will celebrate the fiftieth wedding anniversary of my grand-
parents.
363
The Paragraph
A good paragraph is not a vague, haphazard jumble of
ideas written just as they come to the writer's mind. It is an
orderly arrangement of a number of sentences that develop
a single idea. Some inexperienced writers complain that
their creative quality is destroyed if they are required to
have a sense of order. Actually, successful writers always
plan their work carefully and revise many times. In popular
magazines, newspapers, or business letters, where emphasis
is placed on rapid reading, the paragraph is sometimes very
short, a statement rather than a development; but writing for
these fields is highly specialized and differs in many other
ways besides paragraph length from the type of general
writing that we are learning.
74. TOPIC SENTENCE
The first requirement of a good paragraph is that it
should have a definite point to make and should include
nothing which does not contribute to that point. In other
words, it should have unity. Think of the one point that you
wish to make. Then list the ideas that you will use to develop
that point. A sentence which tells the reader clearly what
point will be made in a paragraph is called a topic sentence.
These are some topic sentences from student papers :
A big family is fun.
The Soph Hop was a great success.
Our city has just built a civic theater.
364
TOPIC SENTENCE
74a-b
74a. Use a topic sentence as an aid in gaining para-
graph unity.
Your writing will gain clarity if you plan carefully. Write
in a clear statement each large point that you wish to make.
Each of these statements can be the topic sentence for a
paragraph. These topic sentences will serve as guides for
the selection of material to be included in the paragraph.
Test each sentence to see whether it really develops the
topic sentence. Remove from the paragraph any material
which does not develop it.
74b. Vary the position of the topic sentence.
You will probably have greater success if your first pieces
of carefully constructed writing use a topic sentence as the
first sentence in each paragraph. As you gain experience, you
may use other positions for the topic sentence. When you
have complete control of your thinking, you may sometimes
merely keep the topic sentence in your mind and not ex-
press it at all.
1. The topic sentence is often placed at the beginning of a
paragraph, as in the following selection:
A fire warden has to work hard. He has an area to
patrol, and he has to see that no one builds a fire within
that area, except at state-designated camp grounds. You
just can't go into the woods and camp anywhere, for
obvious reasons of safety. Then if there is a lumbering
operation going on, he has to manage to show up in the
slashes, unheralded and ghost-like, often enough to deter
the men from smoking in the woods. This involves a lot
of walking in the course of a week and lots of patrolling
around the lakes in a kicker boat. If a forest fire starts in
his territory, he has to organize the fighters, and if it's in
someone else's territory, he has to go over there and help.
He has to cooperate with the game warden in seeing that
the game laws are observed, although naturally this is a
365
TOPIC SENTENCE
reciprocal arrangement, and he can call on the game
warden for help whenever he needs it. If someone gets
lost, they both have to join the search, along with what-
ever talent they can scrape up around the countryside.
— From We Took to the Woods,
by Louise Dickinson Rich
2. The topic sentence may be placed within the paragraph,
as shown in the follovdng paragraph:
On the outer platform I met Zurabeg, an Ossetian, who
had been in the steerage, too. But Zurabeg was no green-
horn coming for the first time. Zurabeg was an American
citizen with papers to prove it, and a friend of Gospadin
Buffalo Bill besides. This Zurabeg came first to America
twenty years before as a trick show rider, and later he was
boss cook on the road with the Gospadin BuflFalo Bill.
Every few years, Zurabeg, whenever he had saved enough
money, went home to find a wife — but so far with no luck.
— From Anything Can Happen,
by George and Helen Papashvily
3. The topic sentence may be used at the beginning and at
the end of a paragraph. Sometimes when a writer wishes
to make his point very strong, he uses a topic sentence
to begin a paragraph and says the same thing in stronger
words at the end. The following selection is from Sports-
manlike Driving, published by the American Automobile
Association.
How one uses any power which is placed in his hands
discloses just what kind of person he is and the degree to
which he has grown up. Any power — whether of money,
office, political prominence, or a fine car — makes a foolish
man look more foolish and a wise man look wiser. What
we do as pedestrians may be mild enough to deceive
many people, but when we get behind the wheel of a
powerful car, every personal quality we have, good or
bad, becomes magnified and easily observable. Power in
your hands shows up the real You!
366
TOPIC SENTENCE
4. The topic sentence may be implied. In the paragraph
which follows, no topic sentence is stated, but one is
clearly suggested.
Of those who drop out of college, some leave for finan-
cial reasons, and this is often tragic because these peo-
ple in many cases do well in college before they have to
leave. Some leave because of poor health. A few are
drafted. Many leave for "personal" reasons — marriage,
family mixups or just the realization that college is not
the place for them.
— From "How to Stay in College,"
by Robert U. Jameson
EXERCISE 1
Here are some topic sentences which students often use
as the basis of a paragraph. On your paper, write a list of the
ideas which you would use to develop the topic sentence.
1. Every < .^V needs some privacy.
2. My <. ■ . y and I have a very pleasant relationship.
3. A teen-ager is seldom understood by his family.
J rr.! r disadvantages "1 . ,
4. There are many i i ^ KO gomg steady.
■' 1 advantages j o fc> /
5. We could improve our student government.
6. We are a family of back-seat drivers.
7. Integrity is good business.
8. In an investigation of any kind, nothing can replace care-
fulness.
EXERCISE 2
The following paragraphs written by students lack unity.
On your paper, write the topic sentence of each paragraph.
Then write any sentences which should not be included be-
cause they destroy the unity. Sometimes the ideas in a para-
graph do not seem to be closely related because the writer
367
TOPIC SENTENCE
has not shown the relationship. A new topic sentence which
would take in all of the details in the paragraph could make
the paragraph unified. If you can correct any of these
paragraphs by writing a new topic sentence, do so.
1. Knute Rockne was really a man builder, not just a football
coach. Although he started his education in Chicago, he went
to high school in South Bend, Indiana. After he was graduated
from high school, he went to Notre Dame, where his great ca-
reer started. Always friendly toward his players, he frequently
arranged little gatherings at his home where the men would
discuss good sportsmanship and good football. He was always
against smoking, drinking, and swearing and taught his men to
dislike these activities. One day while flying to California, his
plane crashed; and one of our great Americans was lost.
2. A musician, even if he is famous, has little security. Most
of the musicians are uncertain today whether they will have
jobs tomorrow. Although most of them are well paid, they can
seldom save any money because they must travel from town to
town under heavy expense. The leader of an orchestra makes
much more than the players do, but he has to work much harder
for his money. He has a great many responsibilities, but if his
orchestra is a success his name will become famous. In music,
there is always a feeling of beauty and a sense of making other
people happy. The life of a musician may be rough, but there
are many compensations.
3. Some educators have said that the comics are good for chil-
dren. They point to the strips that teach history or one of the
classics in literature. For a time, I remember, Silas Marner and
Idylls of the King were both in comic strips, but of course they
were greatly simplified, and the beauty of style was lost com-
pletely. These educators speak also of the development of the
imagination. Yet both the motion pictures and a good book
would be more valuable, for they are more stirring, more excit-
ing. When, finally, they talk of the good habits that can be
developed through the comics, I disagree entirely. In most of
the comics that I have seen, people are involved in crime or in
some stupid, impossible adventure. I do not know one comic
strip that has anything to do with good habits. Many children
368
SUBSTANCE OF A PARAGRAPH ^T ^PCl""l9
read these wild, ridiculous things because their parents read
them. Then the parents are surprised if the children develop a
taste for crime. There are similar arguments about the effect of
television programs on children.
75. SUBSTANCE OF A PARAGRAPH
A paragraph may have details which stick rigidly to the
topic sentence and yet be very dull. The details that make
the substance of the paragraph should be carefully chosen.
75a. Try to avoid stating the obvious.
Your writing is an attempt to communicate some fact or
idea to another person. If the fact or idea is already well
known to your readers, there is no point in communicating
it. A student recently wrote the following paragraph. He was
discussing a newspaper which he read regularly.
The newspaper has several kinds of headlines. Among
them are the main headings and the subheads. The
main headlines are found at the top of the page.
Such information is common knowledge. The student has
added nothing to his readers' experience by what he has
communicated.
75b. Choose interesting details.
Inexperienced writers think that they must state every
detail involved in a story or in the discussion of an idea.
Choose only the interesting or important details. Then
develop them fully.
Dull: When we entered the store, a salesgirl approached us.
"May I help you?" she said. I told her that I wanted to
buy a coat. Since she had nothing that I liked, we left
the store and went to another one.
These details are not interesting, but by using his observa-
tion, the writer might have written an amusing or entertain-
369
■ METHODS OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT
ing account of a shopping trip. Colorful details describing
the store, the people, and the goods would have been more
interesting.
Dull: After a very exciting day, we set out for home. On the
way we sang some songs, and Leo told a few jokes. Then
we reached my house, and the bus driver let me off in
front of my door.
These are dull details. How might the writer have im-
proved on them?
75c. Develop ideas.
A paragraph is usually not simply a statement. It is a
development. Neither hazy generalizations nor mere repeti-
tion of the central thought builds good paragraphs. After
you have phrased the topic sentence, draw upon your own
experience and the experience of others as revealed in news-
papers, magazines, books, and conversation. Make use of
your own imagination, observation, curiosity. Then discuss
the idea stated in the topic sentence.
76. METHODS OF PARAGRAPH
DEVELOPMENT
Paragraphs may be developed in a number of ways,
depending upon the subject matter to be presented, the
mood of the material, and the e£Fect that the writer wishes
to obtain. Using a variety of methods to develop a number
of paragraphs is often desirable. Sometimes a whole para-
graph will be developed by one method; at other times, the
writer may use several methods in one paragraph. Some of
the most common methods of developing an idea are ex-
plained in this section.
76a. Develop a paragraph by details.
In the paragraph that follows, the topic sentence is the
first sentence. After the writer has said that there was
370
METHODS OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT
76b-c
considerable ceremony in the [life-saving] course, she pre-
sents details to show of what that ceremony consisted.
There was quite a little ceremony connected with this
part of the course. Miss Folgil, and some lucky creature
named as timekeeper and armed with a stop watch,
rowed the prospective victim out to deep water. The
pupil, dressed in high, laced tennis shoes, long stockings,
heavy bloomers, and a middy blouse, then stood poised
at the end of the boat. When the timekeeper yelled "Go!"
the future boon to mankind dived into the water and,
while holding her breath under the surface, unlaced her
shoes and stripped down to her bathing suit. Miss Folgil
never explained what connection, if any, this curious rite
had with saving hiiman lives.
— From My Sister Eileen, by Ruth McKenney
76b. Develop a paragraph by definition.
The following paragraph is developed by definition. In
the topic sentence, the writer states that there are two kinds
of snobbishness. The rest of the paragraph defines these two
kinds of snobbishness.
There are two kinds of snobbishness. That of the man
who has had a good many opportunities and looks down
on those who lack them is recognized by aU. The other
kind of snobbishness is rarely understood, yet it is real.
It is that of the self-made man who glories in his success
in overcoming difiiculties and admires greatly people who
have achieved the things he considers of importance.
— From This I Remember, by Eleanor Roosevelt
76c. Develop a paragraph by example or illustration.
In this paragraph, the writer is discussing integrity in
historians and scholars. As an example of what he means, he
tells of an incident in the life of Sir Walter Raleigh.
Their pattern of delusion (believing rumor) is so bril-
hant that even the most objective historians and scholars,
371
METHODS OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT
attempting to record the sum totals of their own inves-
tigations, frequently find themselves hypnotized by star-
tling events which never happened and revealing con-
clusions which were never drawn. All too few have had
the integrity of Sir Walter Raleigh, who, imprisoned in
the Tower of London, was writing the second part of his
History of the World when, one day, his work was in-
terrupted by the noise of a fight in the courtyard below
his cell. Through the barred windows, Raleigh carefully
watched each detail of the incident. The following day
he was visited by a friend who had been in the brawl.
And, upon discussing the entire event, Raleigh discovered
that his own version of the fight was incorrect through-
out. Realizing that he was unable to present an accurate
account of one little incident. Sir Walter Raleigh aban-
doned the writing of his History of the World and, in
disgust, destroyed the manuscript.
— From Affairs of Dame Rumor, by David Jacobson
76d. Develop a paragraph by comparison or contrast.
The following paragraph is developed by contrasting the
control of infection among the wounded in World War I
v^ith that in World War II.
During World War I, more than three-fourths of the
men who sustained abdominal wounds died as a result
of infection; but infection was almost completely absent
following the Pearl Harbor attack. There were a few
amputations required, where limbs had actually been hit
by shell or bomb fragments, but none because of infec-
tions. Yet during 1914-1918 at one hospital 47 percent
of the amputations were caused by infections of gas
gangrene alone. In December, 1941, wounds healed
quickly and cleanly. Even though their injuries would
undoubtedly have been fatal in an earlier period, the
men recovered rapidly and were soon anxious and able
to join the fight once more.
— From Science Remakes Our World, by James Stokley
372
METHODS OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT
76e. Develop a paragraph by several methods com-
bined.
In the following paragraph, the second sentence in-
troduces an example to explain what has been stated in the
topic sentence. This example is composed of two parts that
establish a contrast. The last two sentences contain details.
Another advantage of fluorescent light is that, when
necessary, it can be kept at low intensity, and since the
ultraviolet that excites it is invisible, the total amount
of light is also very low. For instance, in a motion pic-
ture theater, you may want to have a sign giving, pos-
sibly, emergency instructions. If the sign is printed in
the usual way, the whole card must be illuminated, and
a great deal of light is reflected from the background.
But the Continental Lithographic Corporation, in Cleve-
land, has introduced a line of fluorescent inks. A sign
thus painted can be flooded with enough ultra violet so
that the letters shine with sufiicient brightness to be read;
but no other light is seen. Such a method is useful for
blackouts, as has been demonstrated in England. Road
signs, too, or even a guide line down the middle of the
road, might be painted with phosphorus.
— From Science Remakes Our World, by James Stokley
EXERCISE 3
In his book. Mirror for Man, Professor Clyde Kluckhohn
discusses the American character. Some of his topic sen-
tences follow. Using three of these topic sentences, write
three unified paragraphs. Develop each one by a different
method or combination of methods. In the margin of your
paper, indicate which method or methods you have used in
each paragraph.
1. All Europeans are struck by American attitudes toward
women.
2. Even the most bitter critics of the United States have con-
ceded us material generosity.
373
ORDER OF IDEAS
3. Americans have been shy about expressing their deepest
convictions.
4. Countless European observers have been impressed by en-
thusiasm as a typically American quality.
5. Griping is a characteristic American trait.
6. Americans are devoted to the underdog.
7. Americans are interested in devices or gadgets.
8. American friends tend to be casual and transitory.
9. In America, having a good time is an important part of life.
10. Americans love bigness.
77. ORDER OF IDEAS
When the vv^riter has selected his ideas, excluding those
that will destroy unity, and has decided on his method of
development, his next problem is the arrangement of those
ideas in some acceptable order. Such an arrangement will
aid the coherence of the paragraph. What the arrangement
should be depends upon the material itself and the effect
which the writer wishes to produce. There is no standard
rule. However, there is one essential of order: it requires
progress, a forward movement of some sort.
Notice the disorder in the paragraph which follows:
1. A hot rod can also be called a custom-made car.
2. By this we mean that it has a custom-made engine
and a special body. 3. Most hot rods are built around
stock parts from standard model cars. 4. They can do
90 to 100 miles an hour and get 20 or more miles on
a gallon of gasoline. 5. Most of the parts from which
they are made are as old as fifteen or twenty years. 6.
The car which holds the speed record can go 189 miles
an hour. 7. "Souping up" the engine for high speed is
the most important step in making a hot rod. 8. The
motor is torn down, and the block is adjusted for an
easier flow of fuel to the combustion chamber. 9. Ideas
which may appear on future automobiles are now being
developed by hot rodders. 10. If the car is to be used
for ordinary driving, the motor is adjusted to get 140
374
ORDER OF IDEAS
miles an hour; but if the car is used for racing, the
original horsepower is almost doubled. 11. The latter
cars do not work well at low speeds, burn gas at a high
rate, and wear out in one-tenth of the mileage expected
of a stock engine.
EXERCISE 4
The student who wrote the preceding paragraph did not
arrange his ideas in logical order. The paragraph deals with
three points: 1. details of building hot rods (sentences 1, 2,
3, 5, 7, 8); 2. speed (sentences 4, 6, 10, 11); 3. outlook
for the future ( sentence 9 ) . On your paper, rewrite the para-
graph, putting related statements together in a logical
sequence. It will probably be necessary to change the word-
ing in some sentences.
EXERCISE 5
As you did in Exercise 4, group together related ideas in
the following paragraph written by a student. If any sen-
tence seems to destroy the unity, omit it.
1. Some people consider jazz the one original contribution
that America has made to modem music. 2. Jazz is said to have
originated in New Orleans. 3. Some musicians would come
together and improvise countermelodies on a clarinet while a
pianist or a cornetist played the tune. 4. Europeans never quite
caught the secret of playing jazz. 5. The early jazz players per-
formed on river boats, at private parties, and in taverns. 6. To
most people, Louis Armstrong is the true king of jazz. 7. He
formed a band which he called "Louis Armstrong and His Hot
Five." 8. Although many people tried to imitate him, there was
only one Louis Armstrong. 9. In the early days of jazz, people
thought of it only as a product of the Mississippi delta region.
10. Soon it attracted the attention of serious musicians. 11.
When it was taken to Europe, it was frequently looked down
upon, but people liked to dance to its fascinating rhythm.
375
ORDER OF IDEAS
EXERCISE 6
Follow the directions in Exercise 5.
1. One of the most interesting features of eighteenth-century
London was the coffee houses. 2. The places were really clubs
for men only. 3. Men drank their coffee and talked. 4. If a man
was interested in talking about politics, he could find a Tory
coflFee house or a Whig coffee house; if he preferred conversa-
tions on literature, fashions, society gossip, he could easily find
the appropriate group of people interested in similar topics. 5.
Some of the women objected to the coffee house because their
husbands were so often away from home. 6. Out of these coffee
houses grew an interest in clever conversation. 7. Soon society
and literature were affected by this development. 8. In the
coffee house, a man could read, write, or paint to amuse him-
self. 9. Some coffee houses even had their own glee clubs. 10,
The women disliked the coffee house because women could not
go out alone, and their husbands were too well entertained in
the coffee house to take them out. 11. A few of the coffee houses
had gambling and auction rooms. 12. The alehouse keepers dis-
liked the coffee house. 13. They now found that they were losing
business. 14. It is said that through this eighteenth-century place
of amusement, England developed essays, novels, and poetry.
EXERCISE 7
Follow the directions in Exercise 5.
1. Personal habits can be very disturbing. 2. One year at
college I had a roommate who always left her facial tissues
wherever she happened to be when she used them. 3. Bits of
paper with lipstick on them Httered the dressing table, decorated
the desk, and even appeared on the bed. 4. Apparently she had
never heard of a wastebasket. 5. She was careless about her
clothes. 6. Because she was always too tired or in too great a
hurry to hang them in the cupboard, dresses were thrown over
a chair back or dropped on the bed. 7. They were left in little
piles on the floor. 8. Then, with a complete lack of considcra-
376
i
ORDER OF IDEAS
tion, she played the radio whenever she was in the room. 9. I
often found it impossible to study because jazzy music or jokes
distracted my attention. 10. She was careless about lipstick and
powder. 11. Our furniture always had lipstick stains on it, and
a fine mist of powder rose to meet me each time that I put
something on the dressing table. 12. When she was ready to
go out for the evening, she always wanted to borrow my clothes
because hers were too wrinkled to wear. 13. In spite of all this
untidiness, she was very clean, but even her methods of keep-
ing clean were offensive to me. 14. Whenever she had a free
moment, she would wash a blouse or some handkerchiefs and
string them up across the room to dry so that I never came into
the room without seeing wash or having wet clothes strike me
in the face. 15. She was a great girl for noise. 16. She said she
felt lonesome if there was no sound in the room. 17. A back-
ground of music from the radio, her own humming, or a con-
stant stream of conversation filled the room at all times.
EXERCISE 8
Don't write a friendly letter carelessly. Courtesy to ycur
friend requires some thought before you write and some
attention to the general principles of good writing. The
following letter shows haste and carelessness which are a
discourteous response to the kindness of a friend. On your
paper, rewrite the letter, putting related ideas together,
combining sentences, and using connecting links.
Dear Laura,
I never thought I could enjoy a weekend in the country as
much as I did. After weeks in the heat of the city, I was glad
to feel the country air. It was interesting to watch the animals.
I will miss gathering the eggs. It was nice of you to ask Mike
to take me to the barn dance. We surely had a wonderful time.
I loved your dog and your horse. The dog's tiucks are very
amusing, and your horse is so gentle that even I could ride him
rU never forget the swimming party and your pleasant friends.
Thank you for a perfect visit.
377
78a-b
TRANSITIONAL DEVICES
78. TRANSITIONAL DEVICES
An orderly arrangement of details will help to make the
paragraph clear. Another method of obtaining clarity is the
use of transitional, or connective, expressions. Our own
processes of thought are so familiar to us that we are
likely to forget that our readers do not understand the
relationship between our ideas unless we show them what
that relationship is.
78a. Use transitional expressions within the sentence,
between sentences, and between paragraphs. Be care-
ful to use the appropriate expressions.
To add some ideas: in addition, moreover, another way, a
second method, besides, also
To contrast ideas: but, yet, nevertheless, however, still, in
contrast, otherwise, on the other hand
To compare ideas: like, similar
To show purpose: in order to, for this reason
To show result: therefore, as a result, consequently, thus
To show time: then, a little later, immediately, meantime,
afterwards, in those days, earlier
Notice the use of transitional expressions in the following
sentences :
There are today, for instance, 12,000 more steel fabri-
cators— predominantly small — than there were at the
eve of the first world war.
— Peter Drucker
Progress, however, is only another word for civilization.
— Saturday Review of Literature
78b. Repeat key words.
Notice the repetition of key words, which have been
italicized, in the followino; sentences:
We Americans are victims of the pernicious notion that
good books are beyond the comprehension of the aver-
378
TBANSITIONAL DEVICES
age mind. But millions of average minds have compre-
hended them in ages past.
— Milton Mayer
78c. Use demonstrative adjectives this and tfiaf, and
pronouns he, she, they, it to refer to nouns in preceding
sentences.
Pronouns and demonstrative adjectives used to make
transitions have been italicized in the following examples:
A farmer should have a thorough knowledge of crop
rotation. This knowledge will save him money on many
occasions.
Unfortunately, our forefathers were destructive of nat-
ural resources. Thetj moved through a wealthy land and
left it ruined to seek still other fields.
Notice the transitional expressions in the following para-
graph:
Hot rods are useful in many ways. First, they give
pleasure to their owners because of their fine perform-
ance. This pleasure is experienced most keenly in the
stock car races in which hot rod owners often participate.
Then, too, they are valuable to police, for tlieir greater
power and speed make catching a criminal an easier job.
But speed and power are not their only advantages.
Some West Coast taxi companies use them for economy,
and a few commercial vehicle operators have found that
the cars can move heavier loads on steep grades. Un-
doubtedly, they have contributed something to the effi-
ciency of automobiles.
Notice the italicized sentence in the middle of the preced-
ing paragraph. Here the whole sentence is used as a means
of moving from one idea to another.
379
TRAJSrSITIONAL DEVICES
78c!. Transitional expressions oi-e especially important
between paragraphs. Without these expressions, each
paragraph seems a separate unit instead of part of a
whole.
Notice the transitional expression (italicized here) in
these topic sentences from five successive paragraphs from
William Beebe's High Jungle.
1. One of the unexpected aspects of the wild life of Rancho
Grande was the scarcity of ants.
2. Nevertheless, we soon learned that when we wanted ants,
whether singly or in tens of thousands, it was a simple
matter to find them.
3. The leaf cutters (ants) or attas are vegetarians.
4. The aiTny ants, or ecitons, are nomads.
5. The two types of ants correspond to similar human aggre-
gations or groups.
EXERCISE 9
Reread one of the revised paragraphs that you wrote in
Exercises 5, 6, 7, and 8. Have you used transitional ex-
pressions to show the relation of details? Add transitional
expressions if they will improve the paragraph. Do not,
however, use too many such expressions. The result should
be natural, not forced.
EXERCISE 10
Select from these topics three which appeal to you.
Write an interesting topic sentence for one phase of each
topic. List the points that you wish to make in each para-
graph. Write a unified, coherent paragraph for each topic
sentence, using transitional expressions where they are
needed.
1. Family Reunions
2. Blind Dates
380
PROPORTION AND LENGTH
79ci-b
3. A New Plastic
4. My Favorite Beach
5. Billboards on Highways
6. A Great Actor
7. Congressional Investigations
8. Jitterbugging
9. Our Athletic Prospects
10. False Advertising
11. Highway Races
12. Advantages of the Diesel Engine over the Steam Locomotive
79. PROPORTION AND LENGTH
There is no general rule for the length of a paragraph. In
a well-written article designed to give information, the
paragraph is the development of a unit of thought, and its
length may vary from eighty to two hundred words. If the
development seems to run to more than two hundred words,
the paragraph will be a bit heavy; and it might be wise to
divide it. There must, however, be no arbitrary slicing in
half. The division should come at the end of an idea.
79a. Adjust the length of a paragraph to the idea and
the purpose.
A series of long paragraphs makes heavy reading. Short,
choppy paragraphs, on the other hand, give the reader the
feeling that the ideas are not developed. Writers for news-
papers and magazines often use very short paragraphs to
make the ideas stand out. However, such writers are often
simply stating facts, not developing ideas. Businessmen also
are likely to use short paragraphs in business letters.
79b. Adjust the length of the paragraph in proportion
to its importance in the whole article.
Do not deal at length with unimportant ideas or treat
lightly important thoughts. In a five-hundred- word theme,
381
■ ^» MECHANICS OF THE PAKAGRAPH
for example, do not write a long paragraph that is merely
introductory. See Section 82a-c for further discussion of
the division of material into paragraphs.
80. MECHANICS OF THE PARAGRAPH
Neatness and order are important in every paper.
80a. Indent the first line of every paragraph.
The first line of every paragraph is indented except in
business letters that are written in block form. The para-
graph then begins at the left margin.
80b. Do not leave part of a line blank unless a new
paragraph is to begin on the next line.
Keep the margins to the left and right as symmetrical as
possible.
80c. In writing dialogue, use a new paragraph for
each new speaker.
Notice the paragraphing in the following dialogue:
For hours we drove through the beautiful country until
finally our chauffeur pointed out the object of the trip.
"That," he said, "is the Great Pitch Lake. When even
large quantities are taken out, the holes close right up
again."
"Now that solves a problem that has puzzled me all
my life," said Jane. "This is just like the streets of Balti-
more when the temperature has been ninety-eight de-
grees for several days. I always wondered why the city
government chose that stuff for pavements. Now it's
clear. If a hole comes in the street, it closes right up
again."
"Oh no, miss," the guide said seriously, "I don't think
that will happen on a street."
3S2
The Whole Theme
Before you attempt to write a theme, you should master
the technique of writing a paragraph; for a theme is simply
a number of paragraphs carefully joined to present a unified
whole. All of the principles of unity and coherence discussed
in the section on the paragraph are important for the theme.
First, of course, you must choose an interesting topic.
81. CHOICE OF TOPIC
Students frequently complain that they do not know what
to write about. Usually their lack of ideas is a result of the
fact that they are not observant. Life is filled with interesting
things about which a student could write if he would keep
all his senses alert. Every day you see something amusing
or exciting or alarming. Every day you hear people express
opinions with which you do not agree. Then out of your
own experiences, you develop an attitude toward life. All
of these experiences may be interesting subjects for writing.
The subject that you choose should be one about which you
really want to write. For that reason, the topics presented
here are only suggestive. Some of them are too broad for a
short theme. They have purposely been expressed in broad,
general terms so that you may choose any phase of the
subject which seems interesting to you.
81a. Use your own thought and experience.
In everybody's life there is material enough for a novel.
Here are some general topics which may suggest to you
specific experiences or thoughts of your own:
383
81b-c
Moving to a new
neighborhood
An embarrassing
moment
Fighting a bully
I learn to read
A travel experience
My family
CHOICE OF TOPIC
My ideas of friend-
ship
An unusual neighbor
Observance of Yom
Kippur or Christmas
The young people's
group at church
81b. Use the thought and experience of others.
Talk with your parents and friends about experiences that
they have had. Your parents will enjoy telling you of their
youth. Classroom discussions are also an excellent source of
material. The following topics may suggest subjects for you
to write about:
My mother's girlhood
in
An old seaman
Our family doctor
My aunt's education in
Sweden
Love at first sight
Dating customs differ
81c. Use current problems.
Other sources of material are your reactions to newspaper
and magazine articles on such subjects as the following:
A candidate for public office
The new interest in science in the schools
Parity prices in our area
Voting as a duty
Effect of political bosses on elections in —
Our town's largest problem
-'s problem of slum clearance
Our plans for making our city beautiful
Keeping a clean community
Prizes for gardens
Our town and the arts
We build a civic center
384
CHOICE OF TOPIC
81d-e
81 d. Use a motion picture, a play, a book, or a
magazine article that has interested you. Discuss the
ideas presented and give your reaction.
The following topics may suggest ways of using your
reading or theatergoing as a source of subject matter for
your themes:
Underprivileged children
New housing
Social injustice
Safe driving
The effect of television on motion picture making
Figures can lie
The novel discusses the basis of happiness
The play deals with jealousy
The novelist Thackeray once said, "There are no people
so cruel as the young."
The play shows that a marriage faces problems if the
husband knows that his wife is superior to him.
Young people and conformity
81 e. Use ideas from the literature read in school.
Understanding myself
Loneliness
Understanding an eccentric person
Poe's development of mood
Changing heroes and heroines
Brutus's mistakes
Coincidence in novel plots
Building realistic characters
Macbeth: the failure of an ambitious man
Is Lady Macbeth the cause of the tragedy?
Dickens's use of humor
Influence of a child on a man's life
Choosing a husband
Use of the supernatural in The Rime of the Ancient
Mariner
385
•• Bb^^J choice of topic
81 f. Use a quotation from literature.
All the world's a stage.
If winter comes, can spring be far behind?
Many a flower is born to blush unseen and waste its
sweetness on the desert air.
To live in mankind is far more than to live in a name.
Heaven gives its glimpses only to those not in position
to look too close.
Good fences make good neighbors.
There is properly no history; only biography.
The race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the
strong,
81 g. Choose a topic which can be handled adequately.
It is impossible to write an effective theme of three
hundred words on a subject which would require three
thousand words. It is possible, however, to discuss in a short
theme one phase of a vital topic or to give one's own reaction
to this one phase. A thorough discussion of the topic "Social
Injustice," for example, would require a book or several
books; but your reaction to social injustice as you see it
in your neighborhood could be handled in a short theme.
The American Automobile Association has discussed "Safe
Driving" in a series of five pamphlets, but you can write
a short theme about Errors in Driving Made by Teen-agers
or Points for Drivers to Remember or Good Sportsmanship
at the Wheel.
EXERCISE 1
Be alert to interesting things that happen in the next
few days. Talk to other people about things in which they
are interested. Read books, newspapers, and magazines.
Then write five titles which you think could be used for
themes of two or three hundred words, based on your
observation, your reading, and your conversation.
386
OUTLINES
82. OUTLINES
No theme can be a success without a plan. We all think
haphazardly when we are trying to gather materials for a
piece of written work. Related ideas do not necessarily come
to our minds in order.
82a. Choose a core thought.
A written discussion sometimes fails to make its point
because the writer has not established clearly in his own
mind just what point he wishes to present. He has a general
notion of the topic he will discuss but has not decided on a
specific point of view. In the outline that follows, no clear
point is made.
HOUSES I HAVE LIVED IN
I. Our four-room apartment
A. Location
B. Things I remember
1. Strange sounds in halls
2. The wallpaper in my bedroom
IL Our house in New Jersey
A. Description
B. Advantages
1. Room to play
2. No noise
3. Garden
in. My parents and their dream house
A. Location
B. Description
C. My departure for college
IV. The row house
A. Location
B. Description
C. Why it was selected
This outline shows simply four different houses. Nothing
ties them together; nor does the reader see any basic point
in discussing them. Paragraphs I and II seem to suggest
387
OUTLINES
that the paper may deal with disadvantages of apartment
Hving and reasons for seeking a house, but paragraphs III
and IV do not pursue this idea. The point might be ironical;
i.e., all his life the writer and his parents sought their dream
house, but just when it was found, the student went off to
college and was obliged to live in one rented room in a row
house. Yet this point is introduced incidentally and never
mentioned in paragraphs I and II. Other possible core
thoughts might be ( 1 ) effects of the houses on the writer,
(2) expanding and contracting (humorous treatment), (3)
the family's approach to an ideal (paragraph IV could not
be included).
If a point of view is selected and materials are arranged
around it, the ^vriting will be more interesting and much
clearer. A statement of the point of view should be written
at the top of the outline.
EXERCISE 2
Choose five topics from those listed in the early part of
this chapter (Section 81). Write a core thought for each.
82b. Analyze your mafermL
The second step in making plans is to examine the
material to see which points go together and what method of
development would be best. In order to remember all of the
ideas that come to your mind, use a work sheet. As you think
through the topic "Good Sportsmanship at the Wheel," these
ideas might come to your mind:
1.
Disobeying traffic
6.
Tolerance of others
regulations
7.
Driving when in-
2.
Consideration of
toxicated or sick
others
8.
Taking chances
3.
Careful use of horn
9.
Showing off
4.
Recklessness
10.
Self-control
5.
Knowing the power
of a car
388
OUTLINES
82c. Arrange related ideas under appropriate head-
ings."
An examination of the ideas listed in Section 82b shows
that they fall naturally under three topics:
I. Fouls in driving (topics 1,4,7,8,9)
II. Courtesy in driving (topics 2,3,6,10)
III. Knowledge of the power of a car (topic 5)
82d. Use subtopics under main headings to develop
ideas.
I. Fouls in driving
A. Infractions of traflBc regulations
1. Passing on hill
2. Going through stop lights
3. Turning corners without signal
82e» Write the outline.
The following outline is written in topics. It could also
be wnritten in sentences. The writer should be careful, how-
ever, not to mix the topic and sentence methods.
GOOD SPORTSMANSHIP AT THE WHEEL
I. Fouls in driving
A. Infractions of trafiBc regulations
1. Passing on hill
2. Going through stop lights
3. Turning corners without signal
4. Taking right of way
B. Bad behavior on road
1. Being reckless
2. Showing off
C. Driving in unfit condition
D. Driving in unfit car
* The material for the outhne is based on Chapter IV of the
Sportsmanlike Driving pamphlet "Driver and Pedestrian Responsi-
bihties," published by the American Automobile Association.
389
OUTLINES
II. Courtesy in driving
A. Consideration of other people ~~-
1. Drivers
2. Pedestrians
B. Tolerance of others
1. Poor drivers
2. Beginners
3. Show-oflFs
C. Careful use of horn
D. Self-control
III. Knowledge of the power of a car
A. Knowing relationship of speed to force of impact
B. Knowing relationship of speed to stopping distance
82f. Notice the form of a good outline.
1. Write the first word of each topic with a capital letter.
2. Indent headings so that those of parallel rank are under
each other. See example of form in Section 82e.
3. Use some consistent scheme like the following to show
which ideas are to be used to develop other ideas.
I.
A.
1.
2.
a.
b.
B.
1.
2.
(1)
(2)
11.
A.
B.
C.
390
OUTLINES
4. As far as possible, keep topics of equal rank in parallel
form.
Weak: A. Consideration of other people
B. To tolerate others
Improved: A. Consideration of other people
B. Tolerance of others
5. Do not permit one topic to overlap another.
Weak: I. History of jazz
II. The Original Dixieland Jazz Band
Improved: I. Origin of jazz
II. The Original Dixieland Jazz Band
6. Avoid the following topics:
I. Introduction
II. Body
III. Conclusion
An outline containing specific topics provides a more
useful plan than does an outline with these three general
heads. In a short theme, the proportion is destroyed if a
whole paragraph is used to introduce the subject or con-
clude it. A sentence or two at the beginning of a paragraph
will serve to open the whole topic of the paper.
82g. Avoid using an organization that cuts the topic in
half.
I. Advantages
II. Disadvantages
III. My opinion
In this organization "My opinion" really overlaps both I
and II and should be discussed as points are presented.
When advantages and disadvantages have been given, there
is nothing more to say. This is a very loose type of organiza-
tion.
391
OUTLINES
82h. Check the outline^
Does each subtopic develop the main topic under which
it appears?
Does any topic overlap another?
EXERCISE 3
Rewrite these outlines according to Section 82a-h.
GOING STEADY
I. Conveniences of going steady
A. To the boy and girl
1. Date sure
2. Chance to show off before friends
3. Less expense
4. Sense of belonging
B. To parents
1. No worry about child's friends
2. Opportunity to encourage good standards of behavior
II. Disadvantages of going steady
A, To girl involved
1. No chance to know many boys
2. Difficulties of establishing new contacts if the rela-
tionship is broken
3. Loss of girl friends when much time is spent with
one boy
4. Loss of outside interests
B. To parents
1. Possible dislike of boy or girl chosen
2. Worry about early marriage
III. Individuals
A. Types of people who should go steady
B. Types who should not go steady
C. Reasons for parental opposition
variety's the spice of life
I. My opinion of going steady
A. Variety's the spice of life
392
OUTLINES
B. Everyone else does it
1. A fad
2. Keeping in the swirl of things
C. Too young
II. Defects and disadvantages of going steady
A. Lack of interest in others
1. Confides in stead v
2. Loss of valuable friends
B. Difiiculty in meeting new people
C. Ability to get along with others
D. Choosing a husband
1. Familiar with one personality
2. Type of man wanted
III. Controversial topic among parents and teen-agers
A. Parents are against it
1. Fun to date several boys
2. In their day
B. Relationship
1. Not actually in love
2. Can become serious
C. My point of view
THE CONFORMIST AND THE INDIVIDUALIST
I. Thinking
A. Conformist
1. Does not think
2. Leans toward majority
3. Accepts anything
4. Adjusts to group
B. Individualist
1. Impression means nothing
2. Suits himself
3. Logical
IL Way of life
A. Conformist
1. Copy next person
2. Not dare be difi^erent
3. Counted out of society
4. Style
393
OUTLINES
B. Individualist
1. Does what he pleases -^
2. Not always successful
3. Happier
4. More contributions
III. Opinion
A. Conformist
1. Follower
2. No advancement
B. Individualist
1. Leader
2. Seeks knowledge
3. Searches for new and better ways
OPTIMISM AND PESSIMISM
I. Optimism — pro and con
A. Good points
1. Happy outlook on life
2. Confidence in the future
3. Forgiving attitude
B. Bad points
1. Overconfidence
2. Often disappointed
3. Cannot see the bad things about any person or any-
thing
C. Danger of extremes
1. Will accept something on its good points and forget
the bad
2. Will not accept advice when it concerns something
happy or sad
II. Pessimism — pro and con
A. Good points
1. Seldom disappointing
2. Promotes cautiousness
B. Bad points
1. Dark outlook on life
2. Seldom take chances
3. Over cautiousness
C. Danger of extremes
394
OUTLINES
1. Distrust
2. Constant worry
III. Comparison
A. Both have good and bad points
B. Danger in going to extremes in either one
C. Optimism is the better of the two but it is the harder to
come by
WHO SAYS THE 1920's WERE BETTER?
I. Patterns in our culture today
A. Developments in the past decade
1. Atomic devices
2. Modern jargon
3. Domestic changes
4. Medical progress and discoveries
II. Patterns of life in the 1920's
A. Social conditions
1. Gang rule
2. Prohibition
3. Lack of justice
III. Comparisons or eras
A. Similar problems in both periods
1. Unlawful drinking
2. Hoodlums at war in streets
B. Other similarities
1. Dress
2. Dance
IV. Conclusion
A. Improper perspective by contemporaries
B. Superior evaluation by posterity
THE CONFORMING NONCONFORMISTS
I. The "crime" of nonconformity
A. Areas of pressure
II. The conformity of adolescents
A. Areas of adolescent conformity
III. Conclusion
A. Hope for the future
395
MANUSCRIPT FORM
EXERCISE 4
Write outlines for three of the topics that you listed in
Exercise 1.
EXERCISE 5
Write outlines for some phase of each of two topics
selected from Section 81a-f.
83. BEGINNINGS AND ENDINGS OF THEMES
The beginning of a theme should attract attention; that
is, make the paper look interesting enough for the reader to
want to continue reading. Sometimes a little anecdote or a
bit of striking conversation will help. Effective endings
summarize the composition.
Beginning: Mark Twain once said, "Always do right. This will
gratify some people and astonish the rest."
Ending: After all my efforts, I could only hope that more of
my friends were gratified than astonished,
EXERCISE 6
Write the opening and closing sentences for the themes
that you outlined in Exercises 4 and 5.
84. MANUSCRIPT FORM
Your teacher may give you special directions for prepar-
ing a manuscript. Neatness will always be required. The
following suggestions may help you:
1. Write the title in the center of the top line of the first
page of your theme. Capitalize all important words. Don't
capitalize prepositions, conjunctions, or articles unless
they are at the beginning or end of a title or consist of
five or more letters,
2. Write in ink or use a typewriter. No teacher should be
asked to read a paper written in pencil.
3. Number and arrange the pages in correct order.
396
REVISION AND PROOFREADING
4. Unless you are given other instructions, fold the paper
lengthwise and on the outside ^vrite your name, your
class, the date, and the title of the composition.
5. Leave a margin of at least an inch on the left side of each
page.
6. Do not use brackets or parentheses to cancel a word.
Erase the word.
85. REVISION AND PROOFREADING
No paper should ever be submitted until it has been care-
fully revised and proofread.
1. Check spelling.
2. Check punctuation.
3. Check grammar.
4. Check unity, coherence, emphasis.
5. Check efiFectiveness.
EXERCISE 7
Write a theme based on one of the outlines which you
made for Exercise 4 or 5. When your teacher has indicated
the errors, write a second theme, proofreading carefully in
order to avoid the errors which you made in the first one.
Remember that the outline is the plan, and the theme should
follow it. After making the outline, be sure to follow it when
you write your theme.
397
The Research
Paper
The research paper is also sometimes called a term paper. It
is usually from two to six thousand words long and requires
reading source materials, taking careful notes, and organiz-
ing these notes into a unified whole. The problems of
the actual writing are the same whether you write a short
theme or a research paper, but the preparation for the
writing of the latter requires a different and more involved
procedure. Skill in the use of the library and in note taking
is necessary. (See Section 88.) This skill will be valuable,
too, when you must make a report for your club or a busi-
ness report. Before you begin the work on a long paper,
learn to find material in the library.
86. USING THE LIBRARY
In some libraries, most of the books are on open shelves
easily accessible to the students. In large libraries, however,
it is necessary to store some of the books in stacks away from
the main reading room. Usually only the librarian and
perhaps some advanced students who have special permis-
sion go to these stacks, but the librarian will get books for
you if you identify them properly.
398
USING THE LIBRARY
86a. Use of the card catalogue.
In most libraries, every nonfiction book has a number that
tells the student or the librarian on which shelf the book
can be found. These numbers are on library cards ( 3 inches
by 5 inches) in small drawers which have labels in alpha-
betical arrangement. The cards are filed alphabetically.
Many books are listed on three cards: one with the author's
name at the top, one with the name of the book at the top,
and one with a subject classification at the top. If, then,
you want to find books by a certain author, you look for
his name in the card catalogue. All of his books will be
together in alphabetical arrangement. If you know the title
of a book, you can find a card for it. If you have simply a
subject on which you would like to find information, you
look in the appropriate drawer for the subject. Subject cards
often contain references to related subjects.
Notice the three types of library cards on page 400. These
three cards are for the same book. The first card has the
author's name at the top. The other two show the same
book listed by subject and by title.
In an upper corner, usually the left, of each card is the
call number. Before you go to the card catalogue, secure
some call slips. If you do not see any, ask the librarian to
give you some. Write the name of the book, the author, and
the call number on a call slip ( a separate slip for each book ) .
The slip can then be used to locate the book.
If the library is small, you will notice headings on the
shelves. There will probably be a science section with num-
bers 500-599, a literature section with numbers 800-899, a
history section with numbers 900-999. It is not likely that
you will learn all the numbers, but you will soon learn the
sections in which are found the types of books that you use
most frequently. Do not hesitate to ask the librarian to ex-
plain the system of the library and the rules by which it
operates.
399
USING THE LIBRARY
I Chase, Stnart, 1888- i
Power of words, by Stuart Chase in collaboration ■with
Marian Tyler Chase, ilst ed.3 New York, Harcourt, Brace
1I954,
SOS p. 21 cm.
^— — Includes bibliographies.
Author card
Power of words
UOO Chase, Stuart, 1888-
C38P i Power of words, tbv Stuart Chase in collaboration with
Sliwian T^ler Chase. [1st ed.j New York, Harcourt, Brace
1954,
308 p. 21cm.
Includes bibliographies.
Title card
LANGUAGE
loo Chase, Stuart, 1888-
C38p Power of words, by Stuart Chase in collaboration with
1, Tiram I
Marian Tyler Chase. [1st ed.j New York, harfonr
1.1954, I
a)8 p. 21 cm.
Includes bibliographies.
— 1. Communication. 2. Language and langunges.
P90.C5 /^ 400
Library of Congress [56m'15)
1. Title.
54^5980 1
Subject cord
1. Author and date of his birth
2. Call number
3. A bibliography is included
4. Title
5. Number of pages
6. Publisher and date of publication
7. Other headings under which the book is listed
l£ the library is large, there will be special rooms for
books of each type. Ask to see the chart of the library so
that you can find the room that you need.
400
USING THE LIBRARY
EXERCISE 1
Your teacher may divide your class into four groups, each
of which will be responsible for one of the four assignments
that follow.
1. (a) Find out what books by Mark Twain are in your li-
brary. On a separate index card, write the title of each of these
books, the author's name, and the call number or identification
used by your library, (b) Find out what books on baseball your
library has and list each on a separate card as in (a), (c) List
on index cards the titles, authors' names, and call numbers of
five French or Spanish books in your library.
2. (a) Copy on index cards the titles, names of authors, and
call numbers of five books on history in your library, (b) List
as in (a) the books that your library has on conservation, (c)
Examine some of the books in the fiction section and list as in
(a) three which seem particularly interesting and worthwhile
for leisure reading.
3. (a) On index cards, list the titles, names of authors, and
call numbers of all books on banking that you can find in the
card catalogue in your library, (b) List as in (a) five books on
biology in your library, (c) List as in (a) all the books by Sin-
clair Lewis in your library.
4. (a) What books has your library on airplanes? On sepa-
rate index cards list their titles, names of authors, and call num-
bers, (b) List as in (a) five biographies in your library that you
think would be interesting to read, (c) Here are the titles of
two books that boys enjoy very much; if your library has them,
list them on cards as in (a) : Conquest of Space, Under the Red
Sea Sun. If these books are not in your library, find two books
on travel or science that would interest your group and list the
books as in (a).
86b. General reference books.
Reference books such as encyclopedias and atlases are
useful for a summary of information. They are kept together
401
USING THE LIBRARY
in a special section of the library and, unlike other books,
may not be taken out of the library. Among the best refer-
ence books are the Encyclopaedia Britannica, the Encyclo-
pedia Americana, and The World Book Encyclopedia. A
full list of reference books may be found in Guide to Ref-
erence Books by Constance Winchell. Since a reference book
cannot be revised every year, the encyclopedias publish
yearbooks which give more recent information.
It is always important to know the publication date of
any reference book because in a field in which changes are
occurring, old information must be supplemented or re-
placed by more recent details. Outstanding events, changes,
and progress in the fields of industry, government, litera-
ture, and education should be sought in the yearbooks for
the period. The Statesman's Yearbook, for an example, gives
data regarding the government, population, and industries
of many nations. Current volumes of both the Statesman's
Yearbook and the World Almanac are valuable for up-to-
date information.
EXERCISE 2
Make a list of the encyclopedias and yearbooks in your
library. Consult one of them for information on one of the
topics that follow. Write the name of the reference book
that you use and the date of its publication. In topic form
list the main points made in the article.
Advertising
Agricultural
machinery
Alexander the Great
Amatitlan
Andrea del Sarto
Artillery
Francis Bacon
Bavaria
Daniel Boone
Caveat emptor
402
Chemical warfare
Chess
Chinese painting
Diving apparatus
Dresden
Fingerprints
Football
Henry Ford
Benjamin Franklin
Heredity
Homer
Horse racing
Naples
New Mexico
Numismatics
Tibet
Tolstoy
Trade unions
Treason
Waterloo
USING THE LIBRARY
EXERCISE 3
Refer to the World Almanac in order to be able to answer
the following questions:
1. Who won the British Open Golf Championships in 1946?
2. Name five outstanding motion pictures of last year. Who
were the stars?
3. How many homes in the United States have radios?
4. What is the population of Rome, Rio de Janeiro, Moscow?
5. What is the capital of the Republic of Israel?
86c. Reference books on special subjects.
Because general reference books must cover such a broad
field, they can give only very limited information. A refer-
ence book in a special field will give many more details on
the subject. The following list suggests some helpful spe-
cial reference books.
1. Biography:
American Biographies
Authors Today and Yesterday
Current Biography
Dictionary of American Biography
Dictionary of National Biography (English)
Living Authors
Who's Who (Principally English)
Who's Who in America
2. History:
Dictionary of American History, New York, Charles
Scribner's Sons, 1942, 5 vols, and index,
3. Literature — Special Indexes:
A. L. A. Index . . . to General Literature
Firkins' Index of Plays, 1800-1926
Granger's Index to Poetry and Recitations
403
USING THE LIBRARY
4. Literature — General Reference Books, Quotation Books,
and Guides: ^
Baker's Guide to the Best Fiction
Baker's Guide to Historical Fiction
Bartlett's Familiar Quotations
Cambridge History of American Literature
Cambridge History of English Literature
Oxford Companion to American Literature
Oxford Companion to English Literature
Sonnenschein's Best Books
Stevenson's Home Book of Quotations
U.S. Catalog, with Cumulative Book Index
5. Music:
Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians
6. Business:
Statistical Abstract of the United States
86d. Indexes to magazine and newspaper articles.
The most recent information on some subjects may ap-
pear in newspapers and magazine articles. There are a
number of indexes which make it possible for you to find
current information on any subject that has appeared in
periodicals. The Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature is
one of the most useful. When you use an index, it is always
important to read the first few pages, which will explain
how to use the book and what abbreviations are used.
The Readers' Guide is published every two weeks. At the
end of the year, all the material for the year is gathered in
one volume. If you wish to see whether the last month has
produced anything on your special subject, you use the most
recent index of the Readers' Guide; but if you want to see
what last year offered, you consult the volume for the whole
year. There are also volumes for periods longer than a year.
404
USING THE LIBRARY
Other useful indexes are the following:
Agricultural Index, 1916-
This is a cumulative subject index to a selected list of
agricultural magazines, books, bulletins.
Art Index, 1929-
This is a cumulative author and subject index to maga-
zines and bulletins dealing with the fine arts.
Bulletin of the Public Affairs Information Service, 1915-
This is a cumulative subject index to current books,
pamphlets, periodicals, government documents, and other
material in the fields of economics and public affairs.
Dramatic Index, 1909-1949
This was an annual index to articles and illustrations con-
cerning the stage and players in American and British
periodicals.
Education Index, 1929-
This is a cumulative author and subject index to maga-
zines, books, bulletins, and reports in the entire field of
education.
Engineering Index, 1884-
With changes over the years, this index has been since
1928 a selective subject-author index to periodicals in all
engineering fields. It is published annually, but technical
libraries receive weekly cards containing the information
eventually published in the annual volumes.
Facts on File, 1940-
This is a weekly world news digest with a cumulative
index. It includes world, national, and foreign news in
the areas of finance and economics, arts and science, edu-
cation and religion, politics, military affairs, sports, obitu-
aries, and other miscellany.
Industrial Arts Index, 1913-
This is a cumulative subject index to a selected but ex-
tensive list of business, finance, applied science, and tech-
nology periodicals, books, and pamphlets.
405
USING THE LIBRARY
Music Index, 1949-
This is a cumulative index to current music periodical
literature.
The New York Times Index, 1913-
This is a cumulative guide to events of national impor-
tance by reference to date, page, and column.
All these indexes refer to articles by subject and author,
not by title. For example, if you wish to investigate the
topic of conservation of natural resources, you would look
in the Readers' Guide for the topic "Conservation." You
might find an entry similar to the following:
Conservation of resources
America faces challenge to live within own means.
Science N L 55: 9 Ja 1 49.
Country that can feed the world? F. Osborn Atlan.
181: 71-6 Ap '48.
If you consult the list of magazines in the front of the
book, you will find that Science N L means Science News
Letter. The article appears in Volume 55, page 9, for Janu-
ary 1, 1949.
The second article was written by F. Osborn. It is on
pages 71-76 in Volume 181 of the Atlantic Monthly. It was
in the April, 1948, issue of this magazine.
EXERCISE 4
Use the Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature to find
the topics listed below. Copy the entries which seem usable.
Then ask the librarian to give you the volumes of the maga-
zines which you need. Since libraries do not have bound
copies of all magazines, you may need to limit your choice
of articles. Read one of the articles on each subject and
write in topic form the main points presented.
406
Motion pictures
Theater
Conservation
Air travel
Education
Television
Electronics
Housing
Propaganda
CHOOSING THE TOPIC OF A RESEARCH PAPER
87. CHOOSING THE TOPIC
OF A RESEARCH PAPER
87a. Choose a topic that interests you.
You have probably discovered that you write better when
you are interested in what you are investigating. Since you,
like most other students, are likely to be interested in a
vocation, you might find a suitable theme topic related to
the work you expect to do in the future. You might like to
investigate the opportunities in your chosen field, the prep-
aration required, or the salary to be expected. Or perhaps
one of these topics for research would interest you.
Rain making
Smog problems
Effects of television on reading
Television rating systems
The use of television in education
Homes of the future
Americans love statistics
Education and the comics
Propaganda as part of our foreign policy
Motion picture censorship
The changing family
Book censorship
False advertising
Women in industry
The war for men's minds
Commercialized college athletics
Trick photography
Municipal support of the arts
Financing a civic theater
Do the large stadiums pay?
The commercialization of amateur sports
Sports car racing
Economic problems of the American theater
Space travel
Establishing a business
407
n»^ CHOOSING THE TOPIC OF A RESEARCH PAPER
Must art make money?
Broadway's impact on Hollywood
Jazz as an expression of America ^~~
Truth and fiction about Tin Pan Alley
The Stanislavsky method in the theater
Dangers of popular science
Advice columns in the newspaper
The new popularity of ballet
Atomic energy and peace
Influence of Hollywood
The art motion picture
Save our woods
87b. Choose a topic that requires research.
A topic may be very interesting to you but be too narrow
or too personal to require an investigation. Which of these
topics v^ould require research?
Winning a photography con- Is my family unusual?
test A trip to Washington
Making a farm pay My favorite television actors
What do I inherit? Slum clearance
Learning to appreciate music Hollywood meets the chal-
Activities at Camp X lenge of television
87c. Limit the topic.
Since your first research papers will contain only between
fifteen hundred and two thousand words, it is important to
limit your topic to an area that can be handled adequately
in this space. Limit your topic also to one that you can un-
derstand and can make clear to the general reader. Many
medical or psychological topics sound very interesting, but
can be treated only superficially by people who have not
studied medicine or psychology. With topics like "Therapy
for the Psychoneurotic" or "The Psychological Needs of the
Child" there is danger of using psychological terms glibly
without really understanding them or of oversimplifying the
material. An encyclopedia article (not a child's encyclo-
408
CHOOSING THE TOPIC OF A RESEARCH PAPER
pedia) will give a general view of a broad area in which
you are interested and may suggest subdivisions of the gen-
eral area, but this material should be used only to obtain
a broad view of the whole topic. Because encyclopedia
material must be very general, it is not suitable for actual
note taking. Chapter headings of books on your topic will
also help you to limit your subject field.
EXERCISE 5
On your paper, write for each of these broad fields sev-
eral topics which might be handled in two thousand words :
Science Modern art
Conservation Plastics
Farming American education
Ballet Costume design
87cl. Choose a topic on which your library has acie~
quote information.
Keep in mind the resources of the library which you will
have to use. Before you decide finally on a topic for a re-
search paper, use the Readers' Guide to Periodical Litera-
ture (see Section 86d) and the card catalogue (Section
86a) in your Hbrary to find available material. Remember
that your research paper should be based upon material
from different sources: reference books, magazines, books,
newspapers, and pamphlets. Unless you have consulted at
least five or six sources, you cannot write a satisfactory
research paper.
EXERCISE 6
From the lists given in Section 87 or from your own in-
terests, choose a topic which you would like to investigate.
Read a summary of the topic in an encyclopedia and bring
to class for discussion five or six subtopics which you think
might be examined in other sources and used in your paper.
409
SI^{Ci""C TAKING NOTES
88. TAKING NOTES
88a. Choosing books and articles.
Most term papers will require the use of at least five or
six references, including some magazine articles. Which ones
to choose will, of course, involve many points, but you can
begin your selection when you examine the cards on your
subject in the card catalogue. Books with old publication
dates may not be useful for the type of subject that you are
investigating.
The author should also be investigated. Who's Who will
help you decide whether he knows the field. Often one good
book will contain a bibliography of other acceptable books
in the field. The card in the card catalogue will tell you
whether there is a bibliography. If a minimum of five books
is to be used, you should select at least ten books for ex-
amination. Look at the table of contents. Then skim the
chapters that seem usable. Gradually the general point that
you wish to make will become clear, and you can select for
note taking the books that will contribute to it.
88b. Materials for note taking.
Many people have found that the most efficient note tak-
ing for a long paper is done on index cards (3 inches by 5
inches), or on larger cards. Some people, however, prefer
sheets of paper. The important thing is to use a different
card or piece of paper for each fact recorded. You can then
move the cards or papers into position so that all notes on
one subject are together. Such a procedure will simplify
the organization of your paper.
88c. Organization for note taking.
Any project should have a plan. By planning your work,
you can save time and also write a better paper. Before you
begin to take notes, consider what will be required. Since
410
TAKING NOTES
all research papers must have a bibliography and footnotes,
the information needed to produce them should be gathered
as you proceed with the paper. First, make your bibliog-
raphy.
88cl. Preparation of a bibliography.
When you have selected the books and magazines that
contain material to be used, make a separate bibliography
card for each one. Here is a sample bibliography card. ( See
Section 92.)
88e. Method of note taking.
1. Use the index and table of contents to see on which
pages you will find material that can be used.
2. Take notes on one side of 4- by 6-inch index cards with
a separate card for each topic. (This method will save
much time later when you are ready to organize your
points. )
3. Skim the page before writing anything.
An efficient note taker first skims his material. Well-
written books and articles often have topic sentences near
the beginning of each paragraph. Let your eyes move
quickly down the page picking up these main points.
411
^ TAKING NOTES
EXERCISE 7
Use your history, geography, or science text to practice
skimming. Open the book to a page indicated by your
teacher. Skim the page in two minutes and be prepared to
hst the main points.
4. Record information for footnotes.
Before any notes are taken, copy on the card the name
of the author, the title of book or magazine article, and the
page from which the note is taken. These details are im-
portant for your footnotes and also for any further exami-
nation of the source. In the upper right corner of the card,
write the topic with which the note deals.
5. Condense your notes.
It is a waste of time to copy whole pages from your ref-
erence. Notes should be full enough to make the meaning
clear, but not so long that every detail is included. Often
a paragraph or a page can be reduced to a sentence or two.
Notes are often taken in topic or phrase form so that the
main idea is retained, but modifiers and articles are omitted.
Learn also to abbreviate the words that appear frequently.
Be careful, however. Don't abbreviate so much that you
cannot read the notes later.
If your main subject is Propaganda Devices, you might
want to show how rumors or whispering campaigns can
be used. Here is a passage on which you might take some
412
TAKING NOTES
notes. The notes taken on it are on the sample card that
follows the passage.
Perhaps the most potent pipe-dream rumors are those
which satisfy the yen for financial gain. These morsels,
whispered everywhere in the strictest confidence, to be
sure, have sent the stock markets and financial exchanges
throughout the world soaring and diving. They have set
mass migrations in motion. They have sent men crawling
about the bottoms of the oceans, searching in the deserts,
and scouring the lands for wealth which was to be found
only in the imaginative stories.
:^ * ^^^gji^U^JJu r/y^ .m^JL^<Ui..
6. Try to use your own words in taking notes.
If you find a striking statement that you wish to quote,
copy it exactly with quotation marks around it. Be very
sure to note the source and the page on which the state-
ment is found.
7. Be careful to distinguish in your reading and in your note
taking between facts and the author's opinion.
The value of opinions depends on who expresses them
and on the information upon which they are based; there-
413
^t PREPARING THE OUTLINE
fore, a good paper should tell the reader whose ideas are
being presented, — ^
EXERCISE 8
Use your history, geography, or science text to practice
note taking. Open your books to a page indicated by your
instructor. Skim it first. Then read the sections that will be
used in your notes. On your paper write the notes that you
would take.
89. PREPARING THE OUTLINE
Before beginning to write the research paper, you should
prepare an outline for it. ( See Section 82 for outline form. )
Because the long paper deals with many more details than
the short paper, the outline for the research paper is even
more important than an outline for a short paper. If you
have followed directions for taking your notes, you now
have a large number of cards with a topic written in the
upper right corner of each.
89a. Organize the notes.
Put together all of the cards that carry the same topic.
These topics can be used in the outline.
B9b. Choose a central idea for presentation.
Read your notes carefully and select a central purpose
or controlling idea. State this central point in a theme sen-
tence. Referring to it constantly as you make the outline
and write the paper will help to keep you on the topic. You
will always have notes on material that does not develop the
main theme on which you finally decide. Discard the cards
containing that material.
89c. Select the main divisions of the central idea.
From the topics in the upper right corner of your cards,
414
WRITING THE PAPER
select the ones that will bring out the main supporting
points for your general theme. Place these large topics op-
posite Roman numerals to form the skeleton of your outline.
I. Rumors as Propaganda
11. Propaganda techniques
III. American propaganda in World War II
89d. Subordinate ideas in a logical fashion.
Examine the cards on a single topic. Decide the order in
which the points are to be presented. Write the letter A
beside each note on the first point to be considered; use B
beside all notes on the second point to be discussed under
I. Now fill in the outline skeleton with the subtopics.
89e. Check the finished outline.
1. See that each division indicated by a Roman numeral
develops a single topic that does not overlap the point
made in another division, (See Section 82.)
2. Examine the material under each Roman numeral to see
that points indicated by A, B, C, etc., are of equal value.
If the outline is well made, these letters can be the basis
of your paragraphing.
90. WRITING THE PAPER
All the directions for writing a theme are again applica-
ble. ( See Sections 81-85. ) In the long paper, however, it is
important to give more careful attention to transitional ex-
pressions that will lead from one idea to another and keep
the whole closely tied together. Read your notes in the order
in which you have planned them so that you will be thor-
oughly familiar with the subject. Write the first draft with
space between the lines in order to have room for revision.
When you need a footnote, number the material and write
the footnote at the bottom of the page on which you are
working. (See Section 91.)
415
^F^^CI'^Cl WRITING THE PAPER
90a. Follow your outline carefully.
Your outline is your plan and will keep your ideas in
order. If, as you write, you wish to change your arrange-
ment of details or add some material, make the change on
your outline first. Then check it to see that your unity has
not been destroyed.
90b, Use a paragraph system.
A research paper is a serious discussion of a topic, though
a vivid, lively style is, of course, desirable. Do not para-
graph by impulse. A paragraph in this type of writing should
be the development of an idea. Writing a topic sentence
for each paragraph will help to keep the material unified.
90c. Use an introductory paragraph.
You have seen that in a short paper, a whole paragraph
devoted to an introduction may destroy the proportion. In
a long paper, however, an introductory paragraph to give
an over-all view of the whole topic may be desirable.
90d. Revise what you have written. (See Section 85.)
Read the first draft carefully. Check unity and coherence
( Sections 74-80 ) , punctuation, and spelling. Have you used
illustrations to clarify your points? Watch your sentence
structure to be sure that there is a variety of form (Sec-
tion 72). Have you used too many simple sentences that
are flat statements beginning with the subject or with There
are? Combine some of these to show the relationship of the
ideas and to avoid monotony in your style. Have you used
too many or too few footnotes? A full page without any foot-
notes may need to be reexamined. Yet a great many foot-
notes on each page may mean that materials need to be
gathered together. If you type the final copy, double space
and leave a margin of 1/2 inches. Always read the final copy
for typographical errors.
416
MAKING FOOTNOTES
91ci
91. MAKING FOOTNOTES
The writer of a research paper must read what a number
of people have said about a topic and present their ideas
together with some of his own thinking based on his read-
ing. The reader understands that not all of the ideas pre-
sented in the paper are the product of the thinking of the
writer, but he wishes to know whose thinking they are.
Ideas are often valuable in relation to their source. For an
example, ideas presented by a journalist will not have the
same value as those offered by an authority in the field.
For this reason, the carefully written research paper has
a footnote to tell the reader where the information was
obtained.
91a. Use a footnote to give the source of information.
The following sentences are not a product of a student's
thinking. They contain information which must have been
obtained in his reading. The small number (called a su-
perior figure) follows the statements and refers to the same
number at the bottom of the page. Following this number
is the footnote, which tells where the writer of the paper
obtained the information.
Because politicians have not been interested in the arts,
the theater in America has received no state endowment.
Its artistic development, however, has been aided by
people like Otto Kahn, who helped the Theater Guild
over its initial difiiculties, and Irene and Alice Lewisohn,
who endowed the Neighborhood Playhouse.^
^ Sheldon Cheney, The Theatre (New York: Tudor Publishing
Company, 1939), p. 505.
If you find in your reading a very striking expression that
you wish to use verbatim, copy it exactly as it is in your
reference and use a footnote to tell where you found it.
Footnotes are not used for information that is generally
known.
417
91b
MAKING FOOTNOTES
91b. Use a standard form of footnote and be con-
sistent in its use.
There are various forms for footnotes. The Modern Lan-
guage Association of America Style Sheet favors the fol-
lowing:
1. Books:
Book by one author:
John R. Tunis, This Writing Game (New York: A. S.
Barnes and Company, 1941), p. 26.
Henry Louis Mencken, The American Language, 4th ed.
(New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1936), p. 168.
Book by two or more authors:
John Tasker Howard and Arthur Mendel, Our Contempo-
rary Composers (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Com-
pany, 1941), p. 82.
Book of two or more volumes:
Douglas S. Freeman, George Washington (New York:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1948), II, 142.
Book prepared by an editor:
Representative English Comedies, ed. Charles Mills
Gayley (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1916),
I, xxiii.
Richard Aldington, ed.. Great French Romances (New
York: Duell, Sloan & Pearce, Inc., 1946), p. 17.
A Translation:
Homer, The Odyssey, trans. George Herbert Palmer
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1929), p. 46.
2. Articles (essays, stories):
From a magazine:
Walter D. Edmonds, "Arrival of the Lily Dean," The
Saturday Evening Post, CCX (May 7, 1938), 5.
418
MAKING FOOTNOTES
or
91c
or
or
Walter D. Edmonds, "Arrival of the Lily Dean," The
Saturday Evening Post, May 7, 1938, p. 5.
Roger Angell, "A Walk in Washington," Holiday, XIX
(May, 1956), 37.
Roger Angell, "A Walk in Washington," Holiday, May,
1956, p. 37.
"What to Do About the Draft?" Life, XL (May 14,
1956), 69.
"What to Do About the Draft?" Life, May 14, 1956, p.
69.
From a collection:
Katherine Mansfield, "Bliss," A Study of the Short Story,
ed. Henry S. Canby and Alfred Dashiell (New York:
Henry Holt and Company, Inc., 1935), p. 303.
Burges Johnson, "Campus Versus Classroom," Reading
for Opinion, ed. Earl Davis and William C. Hummel
(New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1952), pp. 79-82.
From a newspaper:
"Summer's Children," The New York Times, June 19,
1954, p. 14.
"The U. S. and Its Critics," The New York Times, April
15, 1956, Section 4, p. 8.
Note: The first reference above is to the daily edition, the
second to the Sunday edition.
Notice that when the name of the author of an article is
not given, the footnote begins with the title of the article.
91c. Use a shorter form for later footnotes on the
same source.
1. Ibid. If a footnote refers to the same source as the one
used in the footnote immediately preceding, the abbrevia-
tion ibid, (from the Latin ibidem meaning "in the same
place") may be used.
419
^^■d MAKING FOOTNOTES
First entry:
Sheldon Cheney, The Theatre, revised edition (New
York: Longmans, Green & Co., Inc., 1952), p. 505.
Second entry:
Ibid., p. 508.
2. Op. cit. After the first full reference to a given work,
provided that no other work by the same author is men-
tioned in the paper, succeeding references may be indi-
cated by the author's last name followed by op. cit. (from
Latin opere citato meaning "in the work cited") and the
page or pages to which the reference is made.
Cheney, op. cit., p. 508.
3. Short title. Many writers now use a short title for foot-
note references other than the first. The following example
illustrates this form:
Cheney, p. 508.
If more than one book by the same author is used, the
name of the book must be repeated in footnotes after the
first,
Cheney, The Theatre, p. 508.
First entry:
Clifton Fadiman, "Herman Melville," The Atlantic
Monthly, CLXXII (October, 1943), 88.
Subsequent entry for the same article:
Allowed:
Fadiman, op. cit., p. 90.
Preferred:
Fadiman, "Melville," p. 90.
91 d. Numbering of footnotes.
Unless your teacher gives other directions, number your
footnotes consecutively beginning with 1 on each page.
420
MAKING A BIBLIOGRAPHY
92. MAKING A BIBLIOGRAPHY
A bibliography is an alphabetical list of books, magazines,
and pamphlets on a given subject.
92a. Arrange the bibliography cards alphabetically
by last names of authors. (See Section 88d.) If the
author's name is not given, list the item according to
the first word (except the, a, or an) in the title. Then
type the list.
92b. Arrange all references (books, magazines, pam-
phlets) in one list unless there is a long bibliography.
92c. Use consistent punctuation.
Punctuation varies in bibliographies, but a simple style
is best. Choose the form that you w^ish to use and follow
that form throughout.
This sample bibliography shows books and magazines
separated, although in a Ust of this length, separation would
not be necessary.
Bibliography
Books
Allen, Hervey. Israfel: The Life and Times of Edgar Allan
Foe. New York: Rinehart & Company, Inc., 1949.
Boyd, Ernest Augustus. Literary Blasphemies. New York:
Harper & Brothers, 1927, pp. 163-185.
Magazine Articles
Huxley, Aldous Leonard. "Vulgarity in Literature," Sat-
urday Review of Literature, VII (September 27, 1930),
158-159.
Wilson, James Southall. "Devil Was in It," American
Mercury, XXIV (October, 1931), 215-220.
If your instructor wishes to examine your notes, be sure
that your cards are included. Do not copy these to make
a neat arrangement. Your instructor will want to see the
notes as you took them, and he will probably want to know
about the method you used to build your outline from them.
421
The Precis and
the Paraphrase
93. THE PRECIS
A precis is a summary. Skill in using it is important in note
taking of any kind. Business and professional people often
ask their secretaries to keep a file of summaries of articles
or reports on new developments in their special fields. When
an executive does not have the time to read the whole re-
port of a committee that has investigated some important
project, he may ask an employee to write a precise summary.
93a. Read the material carefully.
The precis must include all of the important ideas. List
these as you read. It must not include your own opinions
or reactions.
93b. Use your own words.
Reduce the important ideas to their bare essentials, mak-
ing every word count. A word can often be substituted for
a clause. The precis should usually be not more than one-
third as long as the original.
93c. Retain the plan of the original.
Altering the order in which details are presented may
distort the meaning of the article.
422
THE PRECIS
93d. Write the precis in exact English.
The condensation must not be a jumble of disconnected
words; it must be written in sentences, in precise English.
Be especially careful to join the ideas by means of transi-
tional expressions that show exactly the relationship be-
tween the ideas.
EXERCISE 1
Write a precis of this selection from William Beebe's
High Jungle:
It is occasionally advisable and often necessary for an attacked
nation temporarily to sacrifice some unimportant portion of its
land for better concentrated defense. This temporary national
self-mutilation is reflected in jungle warfare by certain long-
tailed lizards. Headlong they flee before the onslaught of a
swooping hawk. Their race for sanctuary may be a fractional
second too slow, and the clutching talons seize the long tail just
before it would have vanished to safety. But nature balances
delicately her scales of life and death, and for just such a crisis as
this have been developed the short, loosely interlaced, proximal
tail muscles. Momentarily there ensues a crucial tug of war
between lizard legs and hawk talons. The muscles give way, the
reptile hurtles to safety down the hole, and the hawk finds
meager pickings on the captured tail. The lizard has this ad-
vantage over the human nation, in that within a few weeks, a
brand-new tail will sprout out from the old stump.
EXERCISE 2
Write a precis of this passage from Louis R. Reid's
American Movies Today:
Unchallenged is Hollywood's technical supremacy. In such
details as photography, sound recording, set and costume design-
ing, the California producers lead the world. Their artistic
progress is still hampered by the seemingly inescapable neces-
sity of making their dominant appeal to childish intelligence. Of
secondary importance is that production be based upon a
423
^F^pCI""!^ the pabafkrase
maturity of story and treatment. Upon those occasions when
progressive and imaginative directors break away from trite
and childish formulae to make pictures of mature intelligence,
the result, in many instances, has been astonishingly profitable.
Such films have been received with rejoicing among that portion
of the public to whom movie-going means something more than
a time-passing habit or an escape from realities.
So responsive are the West Coast artisans to this acclaim
that they have fallen into the grievous error of copying their
newly found formulae to tiresome lengths. Thus has come a
succession of films, built upon the themes which had proved
refreshingly adult. So impressed is Hollywood by what seems
sure-fire that variety and change of pace, the mainstays of all
genuinely successful amusement, are neglected.
EXERCISE 3
Write a precis of a selection from a literature textbook
that you are now using.
94. THE PARAPHRASE
A paraphrase is a restatement in diflFerent words. It is
most useful in handling difficult poetry or prose passages
that contain involved thoughts or technical language.
94a. Read the passage carefully.
Use reference books to determine the meanings of ob-
scure words and allusions.
94b. Use your own words to present the essential
ideas in clear, simple English.
EXERCISE 4
Write a paraphrase of a selection from a literature text-
book that you are reading.
424
Writing for
Special Purposes
Do you want to keep in touch with a new friend who hves
in another town? Do you need a job? Do you want some
repairs made on your home? Have you purchased some-
thing which proves to be defective? Must you discuss your
income tax with the government? These and many other
problems require letters.
95. BUSINESS LETTERS
Although some business difficulties can be solved by tele-
phone, it is often better to write a letter because you then
have a clear record of what has been said. Always keep a
carbon copy of business communications. A package of
Manila folders can be placed in the drawer of your desk
or in a small, one-section file and used to keep an orderly
arrangement of the business letters that you send and those
that you receive.
95a. Plan.
Almost everything is more successful if it has been
planned. Letters are no exception. The businessman who
dictates his letters without first planning what he wishes
to say and how he can make his points efiFective is seldom
425
^95l9"C BUSINESS LETTERS
as successful as the person who spends at least a few min-
utes listing the points to be made and considering the lan-
guage that will carry his message. A good course in busi-
ness English or careful reading of a book in this field will
be invaluable if you wish your business letters to get results.
95b. Appearance.
A good business letter creates a pleasing impression the
moment it is taken from its envelope. Physical appearance
— quality of paper, neatness of typing or writing, arrange-
ment of letter parts — is almost as important to the total
effect as content. Correctness and attractiveness in form
reflect a courteous attitude toward the reader.
Business letters should be written on good-quality, white,
unruled paper, preferably of the standard 8/2- by 11-inch
size, although the half-size sheet (8/2 x 5%) is acceptable.
Letters should be typewritten if possible, but neat long-
hand, in black or blue-black ink, is permissible. For typing,
a black ribbon fresh enough to ensure legibility should be
used. The letter must be neat in every detail. Never strike
over or leave a visible erasure.
Leave a good margin on all sides of the paper. If the
letter is short, consider carefully the space that it will take
and plan the margins accordingly.
95c. Parts.
Heading
The heading includes the writer's complete mailing ad-
dress and the date. In the block form (see Section 95d),
the heading is placed even with the left-hand margin at
least two inches from the top of the paper. In the modified
block form, the heading appears in the upper right-hand
corner. (See Section 95d. ) On letterhead stationery, the
writer adds only the date. It is placed at least two line
spaces below the letterhead, either ( 1 ) in the center of the
426
BUSINESS LETTERS
page, (2) even with the right-hand margin, or (3) in the
block form, even with the left-hand margin. Abbreviations
should be avoided, and -st, -nd, -rd, or -th should not follow
the day of the month.
Inside address
The inside address contains the name and address of the
person to whom you are writing. It usually extends from
the left-hand margin. The space between the inside address
and the heading varies with the length of the letter but
is usually at least three or four line spaces. Some title should
always precede the name of the person addressed: Mr.,
Mrs., Miss, Dr., Professor. Do not abbreviate the titles
Professor, Reverend, Honorable. The full name (not last
name only) should follow these titles. The titles Reverend
and Honorable are preceded by The.
The Reverend Carlton C. Lane
The Honorable Charles M. McLaughlin
Salutation
The salutation should extend from the left-hand margin,
two spaces below the inside address. The following are cor-
rect forms:
Most formal {to address
the governor, mayor,
president, ambassador,
high official of the
church):
MEN
Sir:
WOMEN
Madam:
Formal:
My dear Sir:
Dear Sir:
My dear Madam:
Dear Madam:
427
Less formal:
BUSINESS LETTERS
My dear Dr. Hill: My dear Mrs. Holt
Dear Mr. Hill: Dear Miss Holt:
Friendly:
Dear Ned,
Dear Nelda,
To a firm of men or men Gentlemen:
and women: Ladies:
To a firm of women: Mesdames:
Note: Most business correspondence today aims at a
friendly, conversational style. Therefore, the less formal
salutation is frequently used. The salutation labeled friendly
should be employed only with people with whom you have
a very informal relationship.
Body of the letter
The body of the letter should have the following char-
acteristics: clearness, correctness, conciseness, courtesy, and
character. Avoid hackneyed expressions like the following:
according to our records
acknowledging your letter
are in receipt of
attached hereto
beg to advise
beg to inform
by return mail
contents noted
enclosed please find
in re
in reply wish to state
kindly inform
our Mr. Edmonds
our records show
428
party
per
prox.
pursuant to our conversation
referring to
state (for say)
take pleasure
take this opportunity
thanking you in advance
this is to inform you
under separate cover
wish to say
you claim
yours of recent date
BUSINESS LETTERS
Complimentary close
Place the complimentary close slightly to the right of the
middle of the page, two line spaces below the last line of
the body of the letter. Only the first word is capitalized.
A comma usually follows the complimentary close.
Yours truly, Sincerely yours,
Very tnily yours. Cordially yours.
Note: Avoid participial phrases like Hoping for an early
reply, Thanking you in advance.
Signature
Sign your name in ink. A married woman signs her own
name followed by her married name.
Janet Louise Black
(Mrs. Henry R. Black)
Miss, Mr., or Mrs. is never used as part of a signature.
Academic degrees and professional titles should not be
used with a signature.
Incorrect: Dr. Samuel White
Sue Jenkins, Ph.D.
If your letter is typewritten, your name should be typed
four line spaces below the complimentary close and in line
with it. If you have a particular title or position, this should
be placed below your name.
Note: For a full discussion of all the various types of let-
ters used in the transaction of business, see Effective Let-
ters in Business, by Robert L. Shurter, published by the
McGraw-Hill Book Company.
95d. Form.
Styles in business letters have changed a great deal in
recent years. Now, the indented heading is seldom used.
429
BUSINESS LETTERS
The block or modified block form is the accepted one in
modern business writing. In the block form, the margins
are set. The first line of a pragraph is not indented. Every
line of the letter begins at the left margin.
MODIFIED BLOCK FORM
1934 Travis Street
Louisville 8, Kentucky
February 3, 1959
Miss Lucy Irwin
Secretary, Society of Commerce
375 East Boone Street
Arlington, Kentucky
Dear Miss Irwin:
This letter is an illustration of the "modified block" form,
since all the parts of the letter, except the heading, com-
plimentary close, and signature, begin flush with the
left-hand margin. In the "full block" form, even these
parts are at the left.
The paragraphs illustrate block form; that is, each
paragraph begins flush with the left-hand margin. Divi-
sion between paragraphs is indicated by double spaces.
Within the paragraphs and within each part of the
letter, single spacing is used.
No punctuation marks are used after the lines in the
heading, inside address, and signature. Usually a colon
(for formal communication) or a comma (for friendly
address with first name) is used after the salutation. After
the complimentary close, either a comma or no punctua-
tion is used.
Yours truly,
Wilbur Johnson
Wilbur Johnson
430
BUSINESS LETTERS
SEMIBLOCK FORM
Rinebeck and Company,
1224 East Denver Avenue,
Chicago 12, Illinois.
516 Tudor Place,
Detroit 22, Michigan,
November 2, 1959.
Gentlemen:
This letter is an example of the "semiblock" form. The
heading, complimentary close, and signature are on the
right side of the letter, and the paragraphs are indented.
But within the parts the block form is used.
The paragraphs are indented here, but they could be
in block form. In fact, blocked paragraphs are always
optional. Indented paragraphs can be used, if the writer
so desires, with any type of letter, including even the
"full block" form.
Closed punctuation is used here: commas at the end of
each line in the heading and the inside address except the
last, which has a period. Such punctuation, too, is
optional, for open punctuation could be used.
Very truly yours,
Rodney R. Rhodes
Rodney R. Rhodes
95e. Content.
Don't waste the first sentence by saying, "I received your
letter." The fact that you are answ^ering shows that you
have received it. Come directly to the point, or use the
opening material to establish rapport with your correspond-
ent. Avoid business jargon such as the hackneyed expres-
sions listed on page 428 and filler phrases like to the amount
of, for the purpose of. (See Sections 48 and 51.) Be sure
431
BUSINESS LETTERS
that your message is written in language that your corre-
spondent will understand. When writing to people not in
your business, be especially careful not to use business
terms with which you are familiar but which might be
meaningless to the other person.
In business letters, the paragraphs are shorter than in
many other forms of prose, but a letter composed of a series
of one-sentence paragraphs gives a choppy effect. The para-
graph is still a unit of thought. A new paragraph should be
used for a new subject, but since conciseness is one of the
aims of business writing, ideas are not developed as fully
as they might be in general exposition.
95f. Types of business letters.
Letter of application
An effective letter of application stresses, throughout, the
applicant's desire and ability to be of benefit to the pro-
spective employer. Always emphasize what you, the appli-
cant, with your qualifications, can do for the employer, not
what the employer can do for you. The letter must be
courteous, straightforward, and sincere in tone, offering
services without pleading or demanding.
In the first paragraph, you apply for the position, indi-
cating how you learned of the opening: from a friend, an
agency, a classified advertisement, etc.
Qualifications should follow in the second paragraph. If
you have had experience, tell specifically in the third para-
graph of what it consisted and how long you were em-
ployed at each place. If you have had no actual work ex-
perience, give some school, camp, or church activity that
may have helped you to meet the public, gain poise or
self-confidence, and acquire various necessary skills.
The fourth paragraph presents references. Choose these
carefully. The counselor at your school or some teacher for
whom you have done good work will give you an educa-
432
BUSINESS LETTERS
tion reference. If you have worked, include the name of
someone who knows your work and is willing to recom-
mend you. Failure to supply references from places where
you have worked may indicate to your prospective em-
ployer lack of success in the position. Give name, title, ad-
dress, and telephone number of each reference. If you have
never worked, character references from the minister of
your church or some well-known citizen will help.
Close your letter by requesting an interview at the em-
ployer's convenience. Tell where and when you may be
reached by telephone.
People who have had much special education or experi-
ence often send a data sheet with their letter of application.
Under headings such as "Work experience," "Travel," "Pub-
lications," etc., they give a full picture of all of their activi-
ties. When a data sheet is used, the letter of application
simply points up the high lights.
814 Tenth Street, N.W.
Washington 16, D.C.
May 20, 1959
Mr. Alfred Preston, Personnel Manager
Benton, Ward and Company
410 Sixteenth Street, N.W.
Washington 4, D.C.
Dear Mr. Preston:
Your advertisement in the Washington Post for a secre-
tary interested me very much. I should like to apply for
the position.
In a few weeks I shall be graduated from Central High
School, where I have had four years of commercial train-
ing. In my senior year I earned an award for typing at the
rate of 60 words a minute and made the Honor Roll for
receiving a grade of 80 or more in all my subjects.
For the past two years I have been a member of the
Business Service Club at school. This is an organization
433
BUSINESS LETTERS
that does typing, mimeographing, and ditto work for the
various departments of the school. Since I worked for
the club during two study periods each week, I have had
some experience in many kinds of office jobs and have
learned to work with neatness and accuracy. Last summer
I used this experience to obtain a position as relief typist
at Denton's Department Store. Here I took dictation,
typed, and did some filing.
Information concerning my work and my character may
be obtained from the following:
Mr. Theodore Smart, Denton's Department Store,
31 H Street, S.W., Washington, D.C.
Miss Hilda Newman, Adviser, Business Service
Club, Central High School, Washington, D.C.
Miss Sarah Burton, Counselor, Central High
School, Washington, D.C.
I should be glad to come for an interview at any time
convenient to you. My telephone number is CO-4679,
and you may reach me there any afternoon, except
Tuesday, after 3:30.
Yours truly,
Mary Henderson
Mary Henderson
Order letter
If you wish to order seats for a theatrical performance,
a room in a hotel, or a new dress, you may write an order
letter. Be sure to give all information that will help the
company to send you exactly what you want: day and date
of performance, matinee or evening, price, location (if you
have a preference); type of room, price, time of your
arrival; size of dress, color, material, etc. Enclose a picture
from the newspaper if you are ordering from an advertise-
ment. Be sure to enclose a check or tell how you expect
to pay.
434
BUSINESS LETTERS
311 Patuxent Street
Crisfield, Maryland
October 20, 1959
Harmon Brothers
Connecticut Avenue and F Street
Washington, D.C.
Gentlemen:
Please send me by parcel post the following items ad-
vertised in the Crisfield Mentor.
2 Colonial style silver candlesticks,
@ 7.95 $15.90
1 Colonial style silver platter 5.95
$21.85
Sales tax .44
Total $22.29
A money order and the advertisement are enclosed.
Yours truly,
Jane Holmes
(Mrs. H. R. Holmes)
Inquiries
Most inquiry letters are wi-itten to obtain information
about the products or services of a business firm. Some may
be written to an individual for information concerning
a subject on which he is an authority. Always make your
request understandable; avoid vague and general questions.
Supply any information the reader may need in order to
answer your questions definitely.
Routine requests for catalogues, price lists, or other pre-
pared data may be limited to a one-sentence letter clearly
identifying the desired material. If your letter is phrased
as a question {Will you please send me. . . .), it should
close with a period instead of a question mark.
435
BUSINESS LETTERS
Nonroutine inquiries require more detailed letters. For
example, a letter asking about an organization's policies
must explain the use to which the information will be put.
A request stemming from a personal problem must give a
clear explanation of the problem and an indication of the
type of help needed.
The general plan for the inquiry letter (usually from two
to four paragraphs ) is as follows: ( 1 ) reason for the inquiry,
(2) the inquiry, (3) expression of appreciation (never a
"thank you in advance"). Sometimes material may be in-
cluded to show the reader how he will benefit by replying.
If the inquiry includes several questions, these are more
effective when numbered and paragraphed separately.
If the person or firm addressed will eventually profit, no
postage should be enclosed. Otherwise, apply this princi-
ple: When you ask for that which is of benefit only or
primarily to you, enclose a self-addressed stamped envelope.
919 Fowler Avenue
Athens 12, Indiana
September 25, 1959
Secretary-Treasurer
American Institute of Electrical Engineers
33 West 38th Street
New York 18, New York
Dear Sir:
As a student in the College of Electrical Engineering at
Athens University, I am interested in eventually obtaining
full membership in the American Institute of Electrical
Engineers.
Will you please answer the following questions:
1. Is it possible for an undergraduate student of
electrical engineering to obtain a junior mem-
bership in the A.I.E.E.?
2. What is the cost of such membership?
3. Is such junior membership transferable to full
membership upon the student's graduation?
436
BUSINESS LETTERS
4. Does the junior membership fee include a year's
subscription to Electrical Engineering?
I shall be very grateful for this information.
Very truly yours,
William Harbin
William Harbin
Request for adjustment
A request for adjustment is written not out of a desire
to vent your personal anger, but to persuade the company
to settle a claim. You cannot hope to obtain adjustment if
you antagonize the company. Control your annoyance. Pre-
sent the facts clearly and concisely, explaining exactly what
is wrong. The letter usually contains these points: (1) spe-
cific explanation of what is wrong, (2) courteous request
for action you would like to have taken, (3) sometimes, the
inconvenience you are experiencing. If there is likely to be
a straggle for the adjustment, use the first or last sentence
to establish rapport by expressing your confidence in the
fairness of the firm.
311 Patuxent Street
Crisfield, Maryland
October 31, 1959
Harmon Brothers
Connecticut Avenue and F Street
Washington, D.C.
Gentlemen :
On October 20, I ordered from you two Colonial style
silver candlesticks. When they arrived yesterday, I found
that one of them had a decided scratch on the base.
Consequently, I am returning it. Please send me a perfect
candlestick of the same style.
Yours truly,
Jane Holmes
(Mrs. H. R. Holmes)
437
BUSINESS LETTERS
R.F.D. 6,
Lansom, Pennsylvania,
November 15, 1959.
The Tryco Department Store,
49 East Tenth Street,
New York 10, New York.
Gentlemen:
On November 9, I purchased in your radio department
a Vinson radio, table model R-350, with brown plastic
case. The radio arrived promptly, but I am disappointed
to find that it does not operate on DC. It was my under-
standing that the model R-350 was designed to operate
on either AC or DC, but I find that the accompanying in-
structions indicate only AC. I am retmning the radio at
once in the hope that it can be exchanged for a set
suitable for DC wiring.
If there has been a misunderstanding and the R-350
does not operate on DC, I shall have to choose another
model. In that case I hope that I may have a refund,
since I shall not be in New York again for several months.
I hope, however, that you will be able to supply an R-350
model which will fill my needs.
Very truly yours,
Edward Paine
Edward Paine
EXERCISE 1
Select an advertisement from the Help Wanted section
in your newspaper. Write an application for the position.
EXERCISE 2
Order from Hinson, Warner Company, 48 Main Street,
Montgomery, Alabama, the following materials: 1 sweater,
2 pairs hose, 1 dozen handkerchiefs. Be sure to specify size,
color, catalogue number, material, style. In an order letter,
always tell how payment will be made.
438
REPORT WRITING
EXERCISE 3
Write a letter to a theater in New York, ordering tickets
for a current play.
EXERCISE 4
Write a letter ordering a subscription to a magazine to
be sent to a friend as a Christmas present.
EXERCISE 5
You have received as a present a subscription to a maga-
zine. For three months the copies of the magazine arrived
promptly. For the last two months no copy has arrived.
Write a letter to the publisher, explaining the situation and
asking for adjustment.
EXERCISE 6
A store with which you have a charge account has sent
you a bill listing an item which you did not purchase. Write
a courteous note asking for adjustment of the bill.
96. REPORT WRITING
The class activities in any school require simple reports
from treasurer, committee chairman, and other class offi-
cers. Later, you will need to know how to write reports as
officer in a civic group or the Parent-Teachers Association;
as chairman of a committee in your union or the organiza-
tion for which you work; as head of a department or su-
pervisor; as engineer on a project; and perhaps as mayor,
traffic director, school superintendent, or president of a
board of directors. In fact, report writing will, with letter
writing, probably be the type of writing most frequently
used and most important to success in your adult life.
From this introduction you can see that we are not talk-
ing about book reports, which are really book reviews and
have a form of their own; nor are we discussing the report
439
■ REPORT WRITING
that is a kind of summary on some reading you have done.
The reports with which we are concerned are based on an
investigation or experiment that will result in recommenda-
tions or a summary of the activities of a group over a pe-
riod of time.
Good books to consult for a full discussion of business
reports are the following:
Aurner, Robert. Effective Business English. Cincinnati:
South-Western Publishing Company, 1956.
Babenroth, A. Charles, and Charles Parkhurst. Modern
Business English. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-
Hall, Inc., 1955.
Gaum, Carl, et al. Report Writing. Englewood Cliffs,
N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1950.
Saunders, Alta, and C. R. Anderson. Business Reports.
New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1957.
Williams, Cecil, and John Ball. Effective Business Writ-
ing. New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1953.
96a. Types of report.
A report may be a simple, informal piece of work pre-
sented in letter form or two or three typewritten pages of
expository writing. It may also be a formal, bound product,
containing pictures, diagrams, and graphs.
A good plan for the informal report would be:
1. Tell who asked you to study the problem. Give the date
of the request.
2. Explain how the investigation was made (authorities
consulted, reading done, number of people questioned,
tests made, etc.).
3. Submit results or recommendations.
If the report is to be a long, formal one, a special pro-
cedure is necessary. Follow the directions in Section 96b-c.
440
REPORT WRITING ^I^^^H^
96b. Gathering maferial.
When you are asked to consider the problem of safe
driving and the means of handling instruction, to study the
need for a recreation room at your business, to offer ideas
for improvement in handling traffic tickets or parking in
your community, to explore plans for pensions on retire-
ment for the members of your union, the first step is to
gather information. There are, of course, many ways of
doing this. First, use your library. (See Section 86.) Some
very careful, competent people may have studied the prob-
lem already and have made some sound recommendations
which need only to be adapted to your special needs. Ex-
amine books, magazines, and pamphlets dealing with the
subject. The Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature in-
dexes many magazines, but if you are working in a spe-
cialized field, you may be able to go direcdy to the index
for that field such as Industry Index, Agriculture Index,
Education Index and find it very valuable. All of these
indexes are used in the same manner as Readers' Guide.
(See Section 86d. ) Use also Statistical Abstract and the
Bulletin of the Public Affairs Information Service.
After you have read what has been done elsewhere and
made some careful notes (see Section 88), plan your own
investigation. If interviews or questionnaires are to be used,
plan the questions carefully and prepare an orderly method
of recording the answers. Both the interview and the ques-
tionnaire can be used casually and get results that mean
nothing at all. To handle them scientifically, proper tech-
niques must be learned.*
If the report is to be a record of work done during a
certain period, plans for keeping the information under
special headings should be made when the work begins,
and other people who will contribute to the report should
* Surveys, Polls, and Samples by Mildred Parten, published by
Harper & Brothers, gives excellent instruction.
441
96c-cl
REPORT WRITING
have definite instructions about information that you will
need from them.
96c. Plan.
In a formal report or a report of any length, a summary
of the methods used to obtain the information and of the
results or recommendations appears first. The body of the
report discusses these points in detail. The main headings
of an outhne on the topic Fraternity Conditions on the
Campus might read:
Summary
Members of the committee
Methods of conducting the survey
Number and types of fraternities on the campus
Means of selecting members
Activities in which fraternities are involved
': Contribution to the school
; Housing
Fraternities and school elections
Fraternities and the community
Effect on student body
96d. General characteristics.
Reports are examples of expository writing; so all of the
characteristics of good writing that you have learned are
important in reports. Since, however, the aim in report
writing is to present a businesslike message in as clear a
form as possible, less emphasis is placed on eflFectiveness,
and more stress is placed on correctness, conciseness, and
clarity. A discussion of general style characteristics follows:
Objectivity
The first requirement of every report is that it be written
without personal prejudice. The investigator who begins his
work knowing what answer he wishes to get and uses ma-
terials to support liis own point of view is of no value to
442
REPORT WRITING
an organization or community and will seldom be asked to
work with another group. A report must be approached
with a completely open mind, materials assembled in care-
fully organized form, and recommendations made on the
basis of the findings. Even the language of a report is im-
personal. The pronouns / and we seldom appear, and verbs
are often in the passive.
Avoid: We asked each fraternity to answer the questions on the
questionnaire that we are attaching to this report.
Better: Each fraternity was asked to answer the questions on
the questionnaire attached to this report.
Restraint
The report should contain no exaggerations and few su-
perlatives. Avoid expressions such as "remarkably fine con-
tribution to campus life," "exceedingly unsatisfactory," and
"perfect for our company." Present the facts and guard the
conclusions with expressions like "it seems likely," or "evi-
dence seems to indicate."
Directness
Come to the point at once. Use no unnecessary details.
Each paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that
will show clearly the point to be discussed in the paragraph.
The reader who, after reading the summary, wishes to ex-
amine in detail a special part of the report should be able
to find that part at once by reading the topic sentences.
Correctness
In a serious business communication, errors in grammar,
spelling, sentence structure, and punctuation are inexcusa-
ble and will make a very poor impression. With the aid of
your handbook and a dictionary, check carefully what you
have written. Of course, the information used must be col-
lected and the data compiled with thoroughness and ex-
actness.
443
REPORT WRITING
Conciseness
Include no unnecessary details or words. Be sure to use
no filler words. (See Section 51.) Sometimes a clause can
be reduced to a phrase or even to a word.
Wordy: The fraternity which uses the most
democratic method when it selects
its members is. . , .
Clauses reduced to phrases: The fraternity using the most demo-
cratic method in selecting its mem-
bers is. . . .
Reduced to a word: The most democratic fraternity
method of selecting members is. . . .
Clearness
The first requirement for clarity is a logical plan. If re-
lated ideas are not placed together and arranged in order,
the report will be unsuccessful. Correctness, of course, con-
tributes to clarity. Particular attention must be given to
misplaced and dangling modifiers. (See Section 65.) In
order to avoid a number of fiat statements beginning with
the subject, the writer of reports often uses a participial
phrase to open the sentence. Great care must be used to
be sure that this phrase is securely attached to the noun
that it modifies. Finally, choice of language is important.
Consider the background of the people for whom the re-
port is intended and choose words that will be understand-
able to them. Avoid abstract language and jargon (see
Section 48) wherever it is possible to do so.
96e. Form of report.
A formal report should have the following parts: tide
page, table of contents, summary, report, and diagrams or
charts (if they will contribute to the clarity). Very formal
reports sometimes also carry a letter of transmittal, in which
the author presents the report on a formal basis, and a
bibliography.
444
REPORT WRITING
The report is typed double-spaced with a left-hand mar-
gin of an inch and a half. Each new section has a title
which is placed either in the center of a line by itself or
at the beginning of the first paragraph of the section. In
the latter case, it is underlined, as in the following:
Housing. Ten fraternity houses are on the campus
itself, and six are located off the campus.
Charts or diagrams should be numbered and given a title.
They must always be explained in the text of the report.
EXERCISE 7
Write an informal report on one of the following topics:
A plan for student patrol of the campus
How to use student oflScers effectively
How to choose cafeteria officers
Student control in study halls
Organizing a student government
Organizing a literary club
Comparative value of two automobiles
How to furnish a recreation room
Plan for using a recreation room effectively
Report of any committee on which you have worked
EXERCISE 8
Investigate one of the following topics and write a formal
report:
Safety programs in schools
The effects of fraternities on public high schools
A plan for protection of athletes injured in school games
A plan for handling school finances
A plan for a new civic center
Improvements in public library services
Why salaries of should be raised
Organizing a city manager type of government for
A zoning plan for
445
SOCIAL LETTERS
97. SOCIAL LETTERS
97a. Formal invitations and replies.
Formal invitations are usually written or engraved. They
are written in the third person. Full names are used, dates
and other numbers are written out, and there is no punc-
tuation at the end of lines. No abbreviations except Mr.,
Mrs., and Dr. are permitted. The message should be cen-
tered upon white paper. The letters R.S.V.P. mean that an
answer is expected. Since invitations permit no expression
of individuality or originality, the wording in the model
given here may be copied.
Formal invitation
Mr. and Mrs. Frederick Harris
request the pleasure of your company
at a dance to be held in honor
of their daughter Elizabeth
Saturday, February the tenth
at nine o'clock
The Condado Hotel
R.S.V.P.
Invitations should be answered as soon as possible.
The reply is written in longhand, either in the form of the
invitation or in a block paragraph. The third person is used,
and the exact wording of the invitation is followed as closely
as possible.
Acceptance
Miss Catherine Harding accepts with pleasure
the kind invitation of Mr. and Mrs. Frederick Harris
to the dance to be held in honor of their daughter
Elizabeth on Saturday, February the tenth, at nine
o'clock at the Condado Hotel.
Regret
Miss Catherine Harding regrets that she is unable
to accept the kind invitation of Mr. and Mrs. Frederick
446
SOCIAL LETTERS
Harris to the dance to be held in honor of their
daughter EHzabeth on Saturday, February the tenth,
at nine o'clock at the Condado Hotel.
EXERCISE 9
Write a formal invitation to a dance and a reply to the
invitation.
97b. Informal notes.
All personal notes should be handwritten in ink. Since
these notes are an expression of you, the language should
be the simple, courteous language that you would use in
conversation. For example, don't say, "You are cordially
invited to attend a dance to be given at my house," or "I
should like to take this opportunity to thank you." These
sentences are stiff. They lack personality. The letter that
follows is better form.
Informal invitation
University of Delaware
Newark, Delaware
December 13, 1959
Dear Jack,
Elsa Benson is going to spend the Christmas holidays
with me, and I want to have a little party for her on
Tuesday, December 27. We shall probably dance to some
new records that I bought recently. I should like very
much to have you join us at nine o'clock. Will you?
Sincerely yours,
Gertrude Holtz
Informal acceptance
Madison Apartments
Orange, New Jersey
December 16, 1959
Dear Gertrude,
Nothing could make me miss one of your parties! It will
be fun to see Elsa again and to hear her version of college
447
SOCIAL LETTERS
life in California. Thank you for including me. I shall be
very glad to join you at nine o'clock on Tuesday, Decem-
ber 27.
Sincerely yours,
Jack Leonhardt
Informal regret
If you must refuse an invitation, courtesy requires that
you give some legitimate excuse.
Madison Apartments
Orange, New Jersey
December 16, 1959
Dear Gertrude,
Your party for Elsa on December 27 sounds like great
fun. I wish I could be with you. Unfortunately, I shall be
in Washington visiting relatives for the holidays. It will
be disappointing not to see you and Elsa. I do hope that
we can get together when you come back to Orange for
another visit.
Sincerely yours,
Jack Leonhardt
Thank-you note
Carelessness in acknowledging a kindness is inexcusable.
Whenever you receive a present or someone does a special
favor for you, a telephone call or a note to express your
appreciation is necessary. Brides are sometimes criticized
for not expressing thanks for the presents sent them at the
time of the wedding. Boys and girls graduating from high
school sometimes forget to thank people who are kind to
them. For every present there must be some expression of
gratitude, even if you do not like the gift. A note of thanks
should mention the present, express appreciation of any
special quality that it possesses, and tell how happy you
are to have the gift.
448
SOCIAL LETTERS
McWhorter Apartments
Des Moines 14, Iowa
June 25, 1959
Dear Aunt Jane,
When I came home yesterday and found the lovely
string of pearls that you sent me for my graduation, I was
so excited that I had to try them on at once with my
graduation dress. The dress is soft white net, and the
pearls are perfect with it. Thank you for helping to make
my graduation day a very happy one.
Sincerely yours,
Adele
Bread-and-butter letter
The bread-and-butter letter is written to a host or hostess
who has entertained you away from your home town. If a
friend invites you to spend a weekend at her summer place
on the beach or to visit her family during a college vaca-
tion period, a bread-and-butter letter should be written
immediately upon your return to your home or college.
Young people usually write a note to the mother of their
friend as well as to the friend herself.
August 10, 1959
Dear Sandra,
There is nothing like a beach party at Ocean City. What
fun we had! I enjoyed swimming in the ocean, the long
hours on the beach with your gay and charming friends,
and the dances at night. You couldn't have planned a
better weekend for all of us. I know that you will not want
to leave Ocean City very soon, but I look forward to
seeing you in town and hope that you will have dinner
with me when you return.
Thank you again for a perfect visit.
Sincerely yours,
Alan
449
SOCIAL LETTERS
'Note of sympathy
The letter of sympathy is one of the most difficult to
write and is often badly done. It should be simple and
sincere. Avoid flowery expressions and Biblical quotations.
Hamilton Hall
Lake College
October 28, 1959
Dear Barbara,
The news of the death of your mother came as a great
shock to me. Although I have not seen her for several
years, I remember well her kindness to all of us when
we were children. Her cookie jar made many of us
happy.
Nothing that I can say will lessen your grief, but I want
you to know that my heart too is heavy with a sense of
personal loss.
With sincere sympathy,
Alice Carvel
EXERCISE 10
Write an invitation to a Christmas party. Then write one
reply accepting the invitation and one expressing regret at
being unable to accept it.
EXERCISE 11
Write a thank-you note for a present.
EXERCISE 12
Write a bread-and-butter letter to a friend who has en-
tertained you for a weekend. Write a letter of thanks to
his or her mother.
EXERCISE 13
Write a letter of sympathy.
97c. Friendly letters.
In these days of easy travel, people make friends in many
450
S<X:iAL LETTERS
places distant from their homes. Good letters help to keep
these friends, but a good letter requires careful planning
and writing; it cannot be merely "dashed oflF." Letters can
be improved if the following suggestions are practiced.
1. Choose interesting material.
The daily routine of your existence is seldom interesting.
Consider the interests of the friend to whom you are writ-
ing. One friend may be interested in model airplanes; an-
other, in good motion pictures; a third, in music, art, books,
football games. Choose from your experiences those things
which will meet the interests of each person to whom you
write. Your health or the weather is seldom interesting un-
less there is something unusual to say about it.
2. Give details.
A full, clear discussion of a football game or a dance is
likely to prove far more interesting than a series of choppy
notes on a dozen topics. Try to write letters made up of
unified details, not random notes which really are only
topic sentences needing expansion.
3. Take your time.
If a friendship is worth developing, it deserves the cour-
tesy of time and consideration. "I am sorry that this letter
will be brief, for I am in a great rush" is as rude as "Hastily
yours."
4. Do not waste time on a statement of the obvious or the
trite.
Avoid expressions such as "I received your letter" or "We
are all well and hope you are also." Begin the letter, instead,
with a reference to something that your friend said in his
last letter. Answer some question that he asked or comment
on some idea that he presented. Do not close the letter with
statements such as "I must close now" or "That's all for
now."
451
SOCIAL LETTERS
5. Avoid participial phrases at the close.
The interesting letter will not close with commonplace
expressions such as "Hoping to hear from you soon" or
"Wishing you all the success in the world" or "Hoping that
this finds you well." These expressions are not complete
sentences. They are, in addition, exceedingly trite.
6. Give attention to the appearance of the letter.
Write in ink in a neat, legible handwriting. Use letter
paper of good quality. White, cream, or pale gray paper
is preferable to that of other colors. Never use lined paper
or paper pulled from a note pad. Leave a margin of ap-
proximately 1/2 inches at the top of the paper and % inch
at the left. Use the pages in book order. Do not make your
friends spend time looking for the next page.
EXERCISE 14
Examine these beginnings and endings of letters. Come
to class prepared to discuss which ones are good and which
ones are poor. Explain why.
Beginnings:
1. I received your letter Friday and was glad to hear from
you.
2. Now that the holidays are over, I have time to write to you.
3. Here's the best news of the season. We beat Polytechnicl
4. Time really flies. It has certainly been a long time since we
saw each other.
Endings:
1. Hoping that this finds all of you well and happy.
2. I must close now and do my lessons.
3. Looking forward to seeing you.
4. Be sure to let me know how you get along with your
model airplane.
EXERCISE 15
Write five good opening sentences and five good closing
sentences for friendly letters.
452
Listening and
98. BACKGROUNDS OF WRITERS
AND THINKERS
Every day we make mistakes in our purchasing, in our
relationships with other people, in our voting, in the devel-
opment of our attitudes toward life because we have not
learned to think clearly. We make these mistakes because
we believe whatever we are told without attempting to find
out whether the teller knows what he is talking about.
Not everything that appears in print or that is presented in
a speech is fact. A statement may be based on a few facts
and then colored by the author's personal prejudices; it may
be deliberately distorted in order to persuade us to accept
the author's ideas. Then, too, people often reach conclu-
sions in a field in which they have no information or train-
ing, and other people accept these conclusions. The mayor
of a city may know a great deal about city government, but
his position as mayor does not qualify him as a judge of art.
Motion-picture actors and actresses are often asked in
interviews to express opinions on economic conditions.
Sometimes a newspaper that cannot afford a man trained in
the theater uses an ordinary reporter to review a play. Before
you accept a conclusion or believe what you read or hear,
you should know something about the background of the
person who is speaking. A few questions about him will be
helpful.
453
BACKGROUNDS OF WRITERS AND THINKERS
1. Who is he? What has been his preparation for dealing
with the subject? A good magazine often carries a section
that tells something of the background of the writers for
each issue. You might consult Who's Who? or Bulman's
Molders of Public Opinion for information on com-
mentators.
2. What methods did he use to gather his information? If
he used a survey, public opinion poll, or questionnaire
technique, how many people were involved and how
were they selected? We can get nine out of ten people
to say they support any idea if we choose the right ten.
Some exceedingly careless surveys are made and prove
nothing. Unless you know that a survey has been carried
out on a scientific basis, it is wise not to be too greatly
influenced by its results.
3. Has he a motive for presenting his material? Will he
gain a job or money if you act as he tells you to do?
4. Is he prejudiced? Does he present only one side of the
question?
5. Does he use oratorical techniques to confuse the audi-
ence? Be sure that you distinguish the techniques from
the points made.
6. Does he present evidence to support his conclusions?
7. Is his reasoning logical?
EXERCISE 1
Below is a list of commentators and columnists. Using
Bulman's Molders of Public Opinion or some similar book,
read the background of each of these people. Then, on your
paper, write a list of his good points and his bad points.
Be sure that you include his education and the method used
to get information.
Drew Pearson
Edward R. Murrow
Walter Winchell
The commentator that you listen to most often
454
BACKGROUNDS OF WRITERS AND THINKERS
EXERCISE 2
In a current issue of Harpers Magazine or The Atlantic
Monthly, read an article on politics, science, or economics.
Then turn to the "Personal and Otherwise" pages in the
front of the magazine and see what the writer's background
is. On your paper, write the name and date of the magazine
used, the title and author of the article read, and the facts
that you learned about the author. Then state whether you
think his background qualifies him to reach conclusions in
the area in which he has written.
EXERCISE 3
The sentences in this exercise contain conclusions based
on the opinion of another person. On your paper, write a
sentence which tells whether you accept the authority
presented. Give your reasons.
Example:
This is not a good painting. A friend of ours who is the president
of a bank says a child could do painting this good.
I would not accept this authority unless I knew something of his
background in art. The president of a bank may know nothing
at all about art.
1. I have heard a great deal about the effects of environment,
but last night I saw a play that shows that it really has
little effect when pitted against heredity.
2. I think I'll take the course on marriage relations because
the man who is giving it teaches history in my high school
and he's a swell guy.
3. We should eat more potatoes. An article in the paper said
that Senator from Idaho thinks they are important in
the diet.
4. The salesgirl said this chair would go well with my other
furniture, so I bought it.
5. Last week the motion-picture actress. Beryl Chatard, was
interviewed about her trip to Rome. She said that there is
no evidence of extreme poverty in Italy.
455
TESTING YOUR LOGIC
6. Mrs. Manners has been sent as our diplomatic representative
to a country where the steel business is important. She is
considered well qualified because her husband was in the
steel business.
7. The newspapers have recently discussed a piece of sculpture
that customs ofiicials refused to admit to this country because
they said it was not art.
8. I know that Skinpure is the best face cream because an
announcer on the radio said so last night.
9. I am going to take a course in Italian from Sam Serio. He
will be able to teach me because he is an Italian himself.
10. Tonight I want to listen to the commentator Eric Sandler.
He has just spent six weeks traveling in eight countries and
will be able to tell us how the people in those countries feel
toward Americans.
11. I have a friend from Boston who is amused at the way we
pronounce words in the Midwest. I'm planning to go to
college in the East, so I guess I had better learn to speak the
way they do there.
12. America ought to have nothing to do with foreign countries.
George Washington warned us against entangling alliances.
13. They say that there is rebellion in Russia against the govern-
ment.
14. Educational television has nothing in common with com-
mercial television; the former is dedicated to the promotion
of learning while the latter is dedicated to the promotion of
sales.
15. After visiting Stratford-on-Avon, I am convinced that English
productions of Shakespearean plays are better than Ameri-
can productions. Being able to perform plays in Shake-
speare's birthplace certainly is a great advantage for English
actors.
99. TESTING YOUR LOGIC
Thinking is work, but it is important to intelligent living.
John Mason Brown once said, "The mind is the muscle most
infrequently used." And even when we are willing to use
it, we often use it badly. If we want to think intelligently and
listen with understanding to the thinking of other people,
456
TESTING YOUR LOGIC
we must watch certain types of thinking. Your teacher will
be looking for these in your writing and speaking, and you
should pay attention to them also in the writing and speak-
ing of other people so that you will know what to believe,
99a. Rationalization.
We seldom examine our ideas. Much of our time is spent
in finding arguments to support what we have been ac-
customed to believe or what we want to believe. This type
of thinking, in which we reach a conclusion that we hke and
then try to support it with good reasons, is called rationaliza-
tion. The high school student who wants to go out of town
to college when there is an excellent college in his home
town often wishes to do so to escape parental control, but
he knows he cannot persuade his father to spend an extra
thousand dollars just to let him be free from parental deci-
sions; so he rationalizes.
The logical way for a student to solve this problem would
be to list honestly those elements of growth that an out-of-
town college can give and the home college cannot give;
then he would examine the cost and the disadvantages of a
college out of town. If the advantages are sufficiently
greater than the disadvantages and if his father can afford
the extra money, he is justified in going out of town.
Too often, however, the student rationalizes the whole
problem; that is, he reaches his conclusion on the basis of
desire. Then he looks for reasons to support the conclusion.
As a result, he says going out of town will help him to grow
independent. A logical thinker might ask how he will be
more independent when he will be spending an additional
thousand dollars of his father's money.
99b. Oversimplification.
The statement "All women are poor drivers" is a gener-
alization that is false. Everybody knows some women who
are excellent drivers. This is a form of oversimplification.
457
TESTING YOUR LOGIC
Another form is found in the single solution to a problem:
^'We can cure juvenile delinquency by keeping children in
school." If the problem could be solved as easily as this
statement suggests, we'd have no juvenile delinquency. This
type of thinking also appears in many predictions: "Give
the wage earners social security, and the country will go
socialistic" was a common argument thiity years ago. Social
security has been in existence for a number of years, and the
country is not socialistic. "If the child is not permitted to
do as he pleases, he will be frustrated and probably end in
a mental hospital" is another oversimplification. Although
these things may (or may not) contribute to the result
suggested, the cause of this result is always much more
complicated than the statement suggests.
99c. False dilemma^
The false dilemma is a popular device used by people who
wish us to do something. We are offered a choice of two
things, one of which is ridiculous or clearly wrong. If we are
not thinking, we quickly throw aside the absurd thing and
accept the other. Actually, there are usually many more
possibilities. Recently a large city ruled that no high school
teams might play night football in the city stadium because
vandalism had occurred after the games. A city councilman,
arguing for night football, said, "Shall our boys play football
or tiddly winks?" This sounds very convincing. Tiddly winks
is a quiet game that even old women can play. By implica-
tion, the councilman is adding, "Shall we turn our boys into
old women or let them be men playing a vigorous game?"
At this point, the clear thinker knows that it is not necessary
for him to accept either part of this dilemma. The boys can
play football in the afternoon on their school grounds.
Numerous other possibilities also suggest themselves.
99d. Non sequitur.
Non sequitur is an old Latin term frequently used in
458
TESTING YOUR LOGIC
formal logic. It means "it does not follow." This type of
poor reasoning is often a part of many of the other types. A
high school student wrote in her composition on teamwork,
"If all girls on the team work together, the team will un-
doubtedly win." This is an example of non sequitur and
oversimplification. The game cannot be won simply by
working together. If all the girls work together, victory does
not follow automatically. They may all work together and
be such poor players that they lose every game. A news-
paper article said recently: "There are more suicides in the
English and Scandinavian countries than in Italy. It seems
that sunny climates are easier on the spirit." Certainly it is
true that Italy has a sunnier climate than these other coun-
tries, but we cannot conclude from this fact that the climate
affects the number of suicides. The second statement is a
non sequitur.
99e. Catch phrases.
People are inclined to believe whatever is aptly expressed.
Don't change horses in the middle of the stream has often
been used to persuade people to vote for the man now
holding the office. An examination of the statement, how-
ever, will show several fallacies in this reasoning. First, a
politician is always in the middle of some job; so vdth this
logic we could never get rid of him. Second, if a horse or a
man is not doing a good job, the wisest procedure may be
to change him.
EXERCISE 4
Many of the following sentences are illogical. Examine
each one carefully. On your paper write "Statement 1 is
logical" or "Statement 1 is illogical." If it is not logical, write
briefly why you consider it illogical.
1. A newspaper recently presented this statement: "Max
Sanders compiles football statistics. Occasionally he is urged
to give some boy a little push in his record so that the boy
459
TESTING YOUR LOGIC
can be all- American. That he has done this only once proves
that Sanders is a first-rate statistician."
2. Lanolin is found in sheep's wool. It will surely make hair
grow.
3. Some people choose obscene reading material. Therefore
books should be censored.
4. Early to bed and early to rise
Makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise.
5. When I was at camp last summer, the Governor visited us.
He gave me an autographed picttire of himself and seems a
very nice man; so I am going to vote for him.
6. I heard on the radio last night that there is a new medicine
for colds. I think I'll get some of it.
7. I went recently to spend the weekend with a group of scouts
who were seeing Navy aircraft, and I can assure you that
the Navy is the best of our fighting groups.
8. College teachers are better than high school teachers be-
cause the former are better read in their subjects.
9. Nine students elect history for each one that elects a lan-
guage. Therefore, nine out of ten students on the campus
prefer history to languages.
10. We have some friends who came from Germany, but since
thev know our language, they cannot be cheated in America.
11. Students who do not have enough money to go to college
and who want to go should be given state aid.
12. If a person has an easy job, he keeps it.
13. If flowers are watered every day, they will grow well.
14. Mr. Ambrose is a good family man and has two fine sons.
I think he will make a good senator.
15. A little folder with the medicine tells how many people the
medicine has cured. I think I'll take some of it.
16. Our city should have a new stadium because it would in-
crease the prestige of the city.
17. A survey recently made the following statement: In the
United States 30 percent of students who enter high school
do not finish. In Belleville's progressive schools only 9 per-
cent do not finish. This record shows the superiority of the
Belleville schools.
18. The chart shows that of nineteen feeble-minded inmates
460
TESTING YOUR LOGIC
of an institution, fourteen had one parent who was alcohoHc,
This shows that feeble-mindedness often occurs as a result
of alcohoHsm.
19. Mr. Ashton is a fine person. His friends can always count
on him to reward them for any good deed done for him. He
is just the man for governor.
20. The politician said, "I am confident we are going to have
peace. If the people want peace, there is no reason why we
cannot have it."
21. The Chinese do not have high blood pressure. This is prob-
ably a result of their diet. If Americans ate more rice, they
would have better health.
22. A girl who is destined for marriage wastes her time by going
to college. She should study housekeeping.
23. The way to prevent a war is to be prepared for war.
24. There is no reason why men should have a shorter work day.
When I was a boy on the farm, I often worked twelve hours
a day, and I was not harmed.
25. There have been fewer strikes since the law went into effect.
You can see that it is good for the country.
26. This tooth paste will make your teeth white. Buy it.
27. At the tennis matches only two players wore sunglasses.
These two were in the semifinals. It must help to wear sun-
glasses.
28. I'm sure Jay will now be promoted to a big job, for the
present treasurer became an executive of the company after
he had been in Jay's job for two years.
29. Advertising increases sales. Products cost less when they are
made in large quantities. In 1920 an electric refrigerator
cost $600. Now the average price is $250.
30. In March we included in our P.T.A. program conferences
between parents and teachers, and six hundred parents came.
When we had simply a speaker and no conferences in May,
only four hundred came. This shows that we should always
have conferences.
31. A parent recently said to a teacher, "You have failed my
child twice. You cannot be a very good teacher."
32. When a teacher gives 60 in history to a boy vi^ith a 120 I.Q.,
something must certainly be wrong with that teacher.
461
lOOa
PROPAGANDA TECHNIQUES
100. PROPAGANDA TECHNIQUES
The clever use of propaganda by wartime enemies con-
vinced everybody of the need to learn how to recognize it.
It also showed many people how in advertising, political
speeches, and any argument, certain devices can be used
to persuade people to believe what the writer or speaker
wants them to believe. We can all learn to recognize a few
techniques that will help us to think and act more in-
telligently. Keeping in mind the types of crooked thinking
with which we have already worked will give additional
assistance.
Before we can make decisions, we must know the facts.
But people who are trying to persuade us to vote in a certain
way, to buy a product, or to work for a cause sometimes do
not wish us to know the facts. They wish us to see the
problem as they do and agree with them. Instead of giving
facts and letting us draw our own conclusions, they appeal to
our emotions through a number of devices.
100a. Association with something pleasant.
A jar of face cream in an ugly box would have few sales.
Medicines are associated with pictures of men in white coats
working in a laboratory. A television advertisement presents
a happy family watching a television program in an attrac-
tive room. You are expected to draw the conclusion that you
will be beautiful if you use this face cream, that this
medicine has been developed by reputable doctors through
careful research methods, that with a television set, hus-
bands, wives, and children will make a happy family circle
watching the same program. All of these conclusions may be
true, but they may also not be true. A happy family circle
does not automatically develop with the purchase of a tele-
vision set; nor does that advertisement make such a claim.
Because the product is associated with something desirable,
the purchaser, perhaps even unconsciously, connects the
pleasant background with the product.
462
PROPAGANDA TECHNIQUES m^M%MW9
100b. Name calling.
This device has been particularly popular and successful
in persuading people who do not think. If a person wishes us
to disapprove of something, he calls it undemocratic or
radical, or gives it some other unpopular description. Some
of the things referred to may indeed be undemocratic, but
many of them have nothing to do with democracy. The
speaker knows that if he calls a thing by a name that seems
evil to the audience, the listeners are likely to agree with him
without asking, How is it radical? or What makes it
undemocratic? On the other hand, if he calls something
democratic or refers to it as free enterprise, the American
way of life, he has selected pleasant names and expects his
hsteners to accept his ideas. In a county education system, a
new type of report card was recently devised. Some parents
objected to it, and at a meeting between school officials and
educators, the leader of the parents said the cards were the
beginning of communism for they attempted to level the
class, to make all the children equal. Here was an example of
name calling where the speaker made no attempt to ex-
amine the meaning of his term.
President McKinley defended the protective tariff by
saying, "It represents the American family, the American
girl and the American boy and the highest possibilities of
American citizenship to propose to raise money to pay
public expenses by taxing the products of other nations
rather than by taxing the products of our own." All of these
pleasant names associated with American living tend to
make a person believe that any idea with which these are
linked is a good one. Sometimes it is indeed a good idea, but
we must learn not to accept a thing simply because good
names are tied to it, nor reject a plan because bad names
accompany it. We need some facts, and we want to know
how the idea under discussion is a part of the good name or
the bad name. Simply calling a point democratic or undemo-
cratic does not make it so.
463
lOOc-d
PROPAGANDA TECHNIQUES
EXERCISE 5
Select from newspapers or magazines ten examples of
advertisements showing products presented with attractive
backgrounds. Explain what connection the reader is likely
to make between product and background.
EXERCISE 6
During the next week, listen to speeches on the radio and
read controversies in your newspaper. Select ten examples
of the use of unpleasant names. Bring these to class for a
discussion. Then write a paper of four hundred words dis-
cussing, with examples, how name calling is used, what
e£Fect it has on people, and what readers and listeners should
do about it.
100c. "Plain foSks/'
The politician who comes through the crowd shaking
hands with everybody and kissing the babies is using the
"plain folks" technique. By his behavior, he is saying, "I
may be mayor or governor, but I am not snobbish. You can
see that I am friendly with everybody, a good fellow."
Sometimes he emphasizes the fact that he comes from a
simple family and has been obliged to work his way through
school. This is a non sequitur type of reasoning. A man may
be a good governor, no matter from what social class he
comes.
EXERCISE 7
Make a list of the people who recommend products in
advertisements that you have seen. After each name state
whether you would buy the product as a result of that
person's recommendation, and give your reasons.
lOOd. Guilt by association.
This is a particularly dangerous type of thinking. Life is
a very complicated process. In carrying on our daily ac-
464
PROPAGANDA TECHNIQUES m%^^M^P
tivities, we are sure to be acquainted with people and ideas
of which we do not approve. If you receive an invitation
to a party, you do not ask the hostess to list her guests and
tell their political associations before you accept it. Life
will give us associates whom we enjoy for a time because
they are superficially agreeable. Later we find that the
morals or habits or attitudes toward life of these people
cause us to disapprove of them. There is, it is clear, an
important time element involved.
Then there is the problem of association of ideas, A belief
in public housing, social security, and old-age pensions may
be shared by people from all political groups. One does not
become a Democrat, a Republican, or a Socialist because
he accepts one idea advocated by one of these groups.
Here is an excellent opportunity for name calling, but a good
thinker asks for the facts.
lOOe. Statistics.
Nothing is more impressive to the average reader or
listener than the use of statistics, and the more decimal
places they have, the more accurate and convincing they
seem. Darrell HuflF has written an interesting book. How to
Lie toith Statistics, which is worth reading completely. He
points out that figures can be manipulated to make them
present several different points of view. For an example,
averages can be obtained by adding together all of the items
involved and dividing by the number of items hke this:
Salaries in this immediate neighborhood:
$100,000
20,000
18,000
15,000
12,000
5) $165,000
Average: $ 33,000
465
m%m^9^m PROPAGANDA TECHNIQUES
Here the average is $33,000, but only one man makes that
much. This kind of average is called the mean.
The median is also called an average, but it is found by
placing the figures in descending order and counting up or
down to the mid-point. If we go back to our example, we
see that the average is now $18,000, quite a difiFerent figure.
When we are told, "The average is ," we shall want
to ask, "How was the average found, and how many cases
were involved?"
Many other practices that the average man does not
understand are involved in statistics. Before we accept the
statistics, we should know something about these practices.
EXERCISE 8
Divide your class into groups to read sections of DarreU
Hujff's book How to Lie with Statistics. Plan a panel discus-
sion for the class to teach the students how to think intel-
ligently when statistics are used for persuasion purposes.
EXERCISE 9
Read Mark Antony's speech at the funeral of Caesar. Dis-
cuss the techniques that he used to persuade the crowd.
EXERCISE 10
Criticize the following statements from recent speakers
or writers:
1. We cannot doubt the enormous disciplinary value of the study
of Latin and Greek when we see the admirable intellect of
men trained in the English universities.
2. Most of us went barefoot at least sometime or other as
children, and as children we had little anxiety. Wearing no
shoes or stockings will reduce our anxiety.
3. Since 80 percent of women marry, all colleges should give
courses in child care.
4. Either you approve of General Nasser, leader of the Egyptian
Nationalists, or you approve of Communist Russia.
466
PROPAGANDA TECHNIQUES l^^^^
5. The man should be discharged from his teaching job because
in 1932 he visited Russia.
6. I think the present heat wave has been caused by disturbing
the atmosphere with atomic explosions.
7. The speaker said: "Guilt by association is said by some people
to be un-American, but my schoolboy copybook says you can
know a man by the company that he keeps."
8. Twenty people were recently weighed and then asked about
their happiness in marriage. It was found that fat people are
happier in marriage than thin ones.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Allport, Gordon, and Leo Postman. The Psychology of Rumor,
New York: Henry Holt and Company, Inc., 1947.
Brucker, Herbert. Freedom of Information. New York: The
Macmillan Company, 1949.
Bulman, David, ed. Holders of Opinion. Milwaukee, Wis.: The
Bruce Publishing Company, 1945.
Burtt, E. A. Right Thinking: A Study of Its Principles and
Methods. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1946.
Chase, Stuart. Guides to Straight Thinking, with Thirteen
Common Fallacies. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1956.
Chase, Stuart. The Proper Study of Mankind: An Inquiry into
the Science of Human Relations. New York: Harper &
Brothers, 1948.
Chase, Stuart. The Tyranny of Words. New York: Harcourt,
Brace and Company, Inc., 1938.
Dimnet, Ernest. Art of Thinking. New York: Simon and Schu-
ster, Inc., 1929.
Doob, Leonard. Public Opinion and Propaganda. New York:
Henry Holt and Company, Inc., 1948.
Hayakawa, S. Language in Thought and Action. New York:
Harcourt, Brace and Company, Inc., 1949.
Holmes, Roger. The Rhyme of Reason. New York: Appleton-
Century-Crofts, Inc., 1939.
Jacobson, David. The Affairs of Dame Rumor. New York: Rine-
hart & Company, Inc., 1948.
Jepson, R. W. Clear Thinking. New York: Longmans, Green &
Co., Inc., 1956.
467
■^#^9 PROPAGANDA TECHNIQUES
Leonard, Jonathan N. Enjoyment of Science. New York: Double-
day & Company, Inc., 1942.
Linebarger, Paul. Psychological Warfare. Washington, D.C.:
Combat Forces Press, 1948.
Lumley, Frederick. The Propaganda Menace. New York: Ap-
pleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1933.
Mackaye, James. The Logic of Language. Hanover, N.H.:
Dartmouth College Publications, 1939.
Mackenzie, A. J. Propaganda Boom. London, England: John
Gifford, Ltd., 1938.
Moore, Robert. General Semantics in the High School English
Program. Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University Press,
1945.
What Is Propaganda? (Pamphlet prepared by American History
Association for U.S. Armed Forces.)
468
Appendix
101. TAKING TESTS
Whether you plan to go to college or to take a job after
high school, you are likely to encounter a series of tests.
These tests may vary in purpose, but they are usually im-
portant. A good score may mean a scholarship or advanced
standing if you are applying for college, or the job you
w^ant if you are looking for work.
Because these tests are important, it is a good idea to
familiarize yourself in advance with the kind of questions
you will be asked. A number of books providing sample
tests are now available for most kinds of examinations. A
short bibliography of such books appears at the end of this
chapter. You will probably want to examine one or more of
these. In the meantime, the exercises in this chapter give
you a chance to get acquainted with some kinds of questions
common to many diflFerent examinations.
101a. Vocabulary tests.
Matching definitions and words
A list of definitions is presented opposite a list of words.
You are asked to match each word and its definition.
Practice in this kind of exercise can be found in this book in
the section on Vocabulary Growth, page 259.
469
1^#1C1 TAKING TESTS
Choosing from several definitions
Each word in a list is followed by five definitions. You
are asked to choose the correct one. For example:
Equestrian means most nearly a) statue b) pertaining to
the equator c) energetic d) pertaining to horsemen
e) diplomatic.
In such a question you merely indicate the correct mean-
ing of the word by underlining, as has been done in the
sample, or by using some other method indicated in the
directions.
EXERCISE 1
On your paper write the number of each sentence and
opposite it your choice (a, b, c, d) of definition of the word
in capital letters.
Example:
SINISTER means most nearly a) serious b) threatening evil c)
gloomy d) sorrowful e) difiicult.
1. =b
1. DECORUM means most nearly a) decorate b) peace c) proper
behavior d) impropriety e) supposition.
2. EXORBITANT means most nearly a) unique b) powerful c)
excessive d) unfair e) carefully calculated.
3. GREGARIOUS mcans most nearly a) popular b) fond of crowds
c) talkative d) subtle e) antisocial.
4. HYPERBOLE mcans most nearly a) extravagant b) overanxious
c) too critical d) great exaggeration e) unusually careful.
5. RACONTEUR tneaus most nearly a) skillful story teller b)
orchestra conductor c) curator of museum d) tennis champion
e) prize winner.
Choosing the antonym or synonym
An antonym is a word that means the opposite of any
given word. A synonym has the same meaning as the given
470
TAKING TESTS l^^l^fl
word. These questions are a bit complicated because you are
looking for two possibilities instead of one.
The directions on the test read:
In each row of five words below, mark the word which
means fhe same as, or the opposite of, the first word in
the row.
Example:
lethargy: (a) flippancy (b) gravity (c) alertness (d)
darkness (e) poisonous.
Here c is marked because there is no word that means
the same as letJiargy, but alertness is the opposite of leth-
argy.
EXERCISE 2
On your paper write the number of the sentence and then
the word or group of words which means the same as the
first word in the row or its opposite.
1. BENIGN, (a) blessed (b) modest (c) diffident (d) un-
kind (e) malignant.
2. INDIGENT, (a) destitute (b) indecent (c) dependent
(d) unhappy (e) insuflFerable.
3. HACKNEYED, (a) cut (b) banal (c) unsatisfactory (d)
drowsy (e) strong.
4. IMMACULATE, (a) no consequence (b) blemished (c)
immersed (d) washed (e) colorless.
5. INTREPID, (a) pusillanimous (b) extrinsic (c) not rapid
(d) careless (e) unworthy.
6. FACETIOUS, (a) fortunate (b) humorless (c) quarrelsome
(d) false (e) trustworthy.
7. PRECARIOUS, (a) stable (b) preventable (c) prewar
(d) helpful (e) satisfying.
8. EQUIVOCAL, (a) equal to (b) musical (c) nonmusical
(d) dubious (e) scarce.
9. DOGMATIC, (a) animal-like (b) dictatorial (c) involun-
tary (d) automatic (e) efficient.
10. EFFICACIOUS, (a) ineflFective (b) talkative (c) double-
dealing (d) perfect (e) dynamic.
471
■ TAKING TESTS
Filling in blank spaces
The directions on the College Entrance Examination read:
"Each of the sentences in this part has one or more blank
spaces, each blank indicating that a word has been omitted.
Beneath the sentence are five numbered words or sets of
words. You are to choose the one word or set of words
which, when inserted in the sentence, best fits in with the
meaning of the sentence as a whole."
EXERCISE 3
On your paper, write the word or set o£ words which
best completes each sentence.
1. There is in education today an undignified scramble for the
student's time, with broad hints on the part of the scientist that
the rest of the program is
(a) satisfactory (b) unbalanced (c) folderol (d) cultural
(e) topheavy.
2. Machiavelli said in his book, The Prince, "A prince is in the
end to all those from whom he takes nothing, and they
are numerous; he is to those to whom he does not ^ive,
and they are few."
(a) kind — cruel (b) courteous — discourteous (c) liberal —
stingy (d) stupid — intelligent (e) royal — plebeian.
3. There have been in all ages, not merely the
lethargic masses, but moralists, philosophers, teachers, busily
engaged in ratifying existing mistakes and discouraging new
ideas.
(a) do-gooders (b) lawyers (c) poets (d) patriots (e)
obstructionists.
4. Many athletic programs have a false emphasis. They
attention on boys who are varsity material and
the large group who need physical activity.
(a) give — discourage (b) place — distract (c) omit — develop
(d) focus — neglect (e) encourage — ignore.
5. Many European countries do not think that education
should be wholly Students who cannot pass stiff
examinations are not permitted to enter a secondary school,
(a) free (b) democratic (c) academic (d) vocational
(e) completed in lower grades.
472
TAKING TESTS
lOla
6. A whole set of is rapidly developing. We con-
sider ourselves civilized if we multiply the number of motor
cars and struggle for the attainment of ends which are not worth
attaining.
(a) new beliefs (b) false standards (c) cheap manners (d)
important goals (e) commercial attitudes.
7. Greatiy concerned about the supply of pure water in the
future, some scientists have been studying control.
(a) pollution (b) power (c) irrigation (d) river (e) ice.
8. The Germans, we are told, expect a great deal of their
theater. It is not a place for , good fun after dinner,
but must serve a "cultural mission."
(a) comedy (b) chatter (c) amateurs (d) dull perform-
ances (e) casual entertainment.
9. The deplorable nursing conditions which Florence Night-
ingale found during the Crimean War were the result of petty
bungling of minor oflBcials, , and fatal exactitudes of
narrow routine.
(a) infinite attention to cleanliness (b) endless ramification of
administrative incapacity (c) unusual concern of the govern-
ment (d) too much attention to women (e) clubs and sorori-
ties interested in the work.
10. The pride of an alumnus in his college should be based
on the development of intelligence, not on the of the
football team.
(a) failure (b) recruiting (c) prowess (d) coach (e)
movement.
Completing analogies
The directions read: "Each of the questions in this part
consists of two words which have a certain relationship to
each other, followed by five lettered pairs of related
words. Select the lettered pair of words which are related
to each other in the same way as the original pair of words
are related to each other." For example:
basket: straw :: (a) dress: stitch (b) house: room (c)
table: leg (d) blanket: wool (e) desk: write.
473
ioi<
TAKING TESTS
The underlined selection is correct. The important point
in exercises of this sort is to establish the exact relationship
between the first two words before you try to choose the
answer. For example, the basket is made of straw. Although
in all of the groups of words ( a, b, c, d ) there is a relation-
ship, only in d is the thing named by one word made of the
material named by the other.
Many different relationships are used. Sometimes the
groups of words are antonyms or synonyms. For example:
easy: hard :: good: bad (antonyms)
easy : simple :: hard :diflR cult (synonyms)
Sometimes a word in the first section of the analogy is a
member of a class. In the example below, corn is a member
of the grain class. Then in the second section of the analogy,
one word must be a member of a class. Silver is a member of
the metal class. For example:
corn: grain :: silver: metal
man: mammal :: lobster: crustacean
In some tests, the student is given three parts of the
analogy and is asked to supply only the fourth member
instead of supplying two words already compared as in the
example above.
embroidery: stitch :: tapestry:
(a) curtain (b) wall hanging (c) weave (d)
fabric (e) design.
Embroidery is made by stitching; tapestry is made by
weaving; so weave should be the word selected.
EXERCISE 4
To get practice in establishing relationships, write on your
paper the word which will complete each analogy.
1. eye: body :: room: (a) table (b) house (c)
stable (d) furniture (e) carpet.
474
TAKING TESTS
lOIci
2. Boy:club :: girl: (a) friend (b) boy (c)
dress (d) join (e) sorority.
3. canister: sugar :: drawer: (a) bureau (b)
clothes (c) closed (d) food (e) sweetness.
4. abhor:love :: hope: (a) sorrow (b) despair
(c) hate (d) like (e) attraction.
5. genial: unpleasant :: liquid: (a) drug (b)
pleasant (c) liquor (d) solid (e) medicine.
6. chemist: scientist :: teacher: (a) medicine (b)
investigator (c) educator (d) researcher (e) trader.
7. opaque: transparent :: lucrative: (a) translucent
(b) helpful (c) prosperous (d) satisfied (e) unprofit-
able.
8. foolish:inane :: incessant: (a) free (b) con-
tinual (c) unfortunate (d) ceasing (e) clever.
9. truncated:cut :: insipid: (a) food (b) flat
(c) lively (d) curt (e) interesting.
10. vaccination: smallpox :: caution: (a) accidents
(b) disease (c) inoculation (d) diphtheria (e) care-
lessness.
11. urban:city :: rural: (a) mountain (b) river
(c) country (d) suburban (e) healthful.
12. knife: surgeon :: palette: (a) carpenter (b)
artist (c) teacher (d) paint (e) sculpture.
13. adamant: inflexible :: erudite: (a) ignorant (b)
incessant (c) firm (d) learned (e) clever.
14. bird:whale :: fly: (a) sea (b) soak (c) swim
(d) fish (e) air.
15. mendicant:beg :: vicar: (a) sing (b) preach
(c) visit (d) hunt (e) eat.
16. Simpleton: fool :: gown: (a) servant (b) dress
(c) judge (d) night (e) evening.
17. munificent: philanthropist :: parsimonious: (a)
doctor (b) scientist (c) astronomer (d) miser (e)
archaeologist.
18. elegy :poetry :: corn: (a) grain (b) bread
(c) farm (d) stalks (e) harvest.
19. asylum: orphan :: convent: (a) monk (b) nun
(c) rabbi (d) learn (e) religion.
475
*^^"** TAKING TESTS
20. nocturnal: diurnal :: external: (a) perennial
(b) pastoral (c) superficial (d) outside (e) internal.
21. epilogue: drama :: peroration: (a) sonnet (b)
argument (c) prose (d) prologue (e) preparation.
22. deer:sheep :: doe: (a) lamb (b) drake (c)
moose (d) ewe (e) buck.
23. eulogy: praise :: penurious: (a) blame (b)
poverty (c) stingy (d) opulent (e) helpful.
24. obese: emaciated :: obsolete: (a) new (b)
obedient (c) thin (d) absent (e) emanate.
25. she:her :: boy: (a) his (b) boy's (c) yours
(d) boys' (e) man's.
Materials similar to those which we have examined are
found in a wide variety of tests. Understanding how to
handle them will help you to pass tests for college entrance,
for scholarships, for jobs,
101b. The College Entranee Exammafion»
i'he College Entrance Examination itself consists of: 1)
a three-hour scholastic aptitude test which includes a verbal
section and a mathematical section; 2) three one-hour
achievement tests in subjects selected by the candidate
such as, foreign languages, English composition, science and
history.
The verbal section includes vocabulary questions similar
to those w^hich we have examined and a reading test. In the
latter the student is given passages to read and is expected to
answer questions about content and do some thinking in
order to draw conclusions about the material. (See Section
100.)
The English Composition Achievement section often in-
cludes (1) sentences in scrambled order to be placed in
logical order; (2) a poorly written paragraph to be cor-
rected; (3) an exercise testing the student's appreciation
of style,
EXERCISE 5
Assume that the following paragraph is a rough copy
476
TAKING TESTS 1^9 ■■3
written by you. Copy, rewrite, and proofread the para-
graph, correcting grammar, punctuation, capitaHzation,
phrasing, wordiness.
Dissatisfied with hfe as a member of briUiant society Florence
Nightingale's one interest and desire seemed to lay in the field
of being a nurse, but many diflBculties faced her family and she
before she could accomplish it. A true representative of the
Victorian era, nursing seemed to Miss Nightingales mother an
occupation unfit for a woman of society and who had an inde-
pendent income. Every eflEort that Florence made to learn some-
thing about hospital work or what was good nursing practice
was discouraged by friends and family. Then the Crimean War
broke out, and Florence obtained an opportunity to go to Scu-
tari, where dreadful conditions prevailed in English hospitals,
from a government ofiicial who was a friend of her family. From
then on, she worked valiant for better conditions. As a result,
nursing became a profession. Today many young women choose
this honorable profession,
EXERCISE 6
Follow the directions for Exercise 5.
As I read the book, I felt as if I was actually living the life
of the protagonist. Its development, character portrayal, and
vivid description adds up to one of the liveliest stories of the
postwar years and makes every reader wish they were able to
have the experiences presented by the author. Divided into ten
chapters, each chapter gives experiences that are stirring, vital,
with plenty of "punch," and even with some humor.
Any review would only be half completed if no mention was
made of the author's background and how he happened to write
the book, which is one reason why the story is so interesting.
Born in South Africa, his life was spent in or near the jungle.
Here he learned the secrets of the tangled vines, how to deal
with the animals, to recognize the poisonous plants and to make
even an acquaintance with a little-known tribe that helped him
to find the huge warship in a remote section that the Germans
had hidden during the war.
477
1^9 IBS TAKING TESTS
Occasionally you may be asked to write a paragraph based
on topic sentences such as these: ^
Even in societies like ours there is an astonishing amount
of unquestioning acceptance of customary behavior
patterns, thought patterns, and feeling patterns.
For a majority of people in the West, purposeless read-
ing, purposeless listening in, purposeless looking at
films have become addictions.
Like every instrument that man has invented, sport can
be used either for good or evil purposes.
How one uses any power which is placed in his hands
discloses just what kind of person he is and the degree
to which he has grown up.
You may even be asked to choose from a group of topics
of wide interest one topic on which you will prepare an
outline, write an essay based on the outline, and summarize
its theme briefly. The themes which you write for your high
school classes will help to prepare you for this kind of as-
signment.
The last problem, understanding of style, may deal with
poetry or prose. It tests the student's appreciation of ap-
propriate tone, imagery, rhythm.
EXERCISE 7
The directions read: "In each of the passages of poetry
there is a blank space showing that a line has been omitted.
Beneath each passage are four suggested Hues which might
be inserted in the blank space. One of the lines is ap-
propriate ( a ) ; one of the lines is inappropriate in rhythm or
meter ( b ) ; one of the lines is inappropriate in style or tone
(c); and one of the lines is inappropriate in meaning (d).
You are to determine the proper category for each line."
On your paper write the number of the appropriate line
and mark it a. Then write the numbers of each of the other
lines and mark it with the proper letter.
478
TAKING TESTS
I
lOlb
He that loves a rosy cheek,
Or a coral lip admires,
Or from star-like eyes doth seek
Fuel to maintain his fires:
As old Time makes these decay
1. His love will waste away.
2. He will seek another way.
3. So his flames must waste away.
4. What, I ask you, wastes away?
n
I did but look and love awhile,
'Twas but for one half -hour;
Then to resist I had no will.
1. But you have given power.
2. Now I need some power.
3. Behold, there is no power.
4. And now I have no power.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Practice exercises based on questions found in both aptitude
and achievement tests can be purchased from the Educational
Advisory Center, 400 Boylston Street, Boston, Massachusetts.
Here the following review materials are available:
College Entrance Reviews in Mathematics Aptitude
College Entrance Reviews in English Aptitude
College Entrance Reviews in English Composition
College Entrance Reviews in Intermediate Mathematics
The Arco Publishing Company, 480 Lexington Avenue, New
York 47, New York, publishes the following helps:
How to Pass College Entrance Tests
How to Pass National Merit Scholarship Tests
Vocabulary Builder and Guide to Verbal Tests
479
SENTENCE ANALYSIS AND DIAGRAMING
Additional information about colleges can be found in:
Karl, S. Donald. The College Handbook. New York: College
Entrance Examination Board, 1957-58.
Lovejoy, Clarence. Lovejoys College Guide. New York: Simon
and Schuster, Inc., 1956.
Turngren, Annette. Choosing the Right College. New York:
Harper & Brothers, 1952.
102. SENTENCE ANALYSIS
AND DIAGRAMING
Theoretically, one who knows grammar should be able to
analyze a sentence both by words and by groups of words.
Consider the following sentence:
The little old lady across the street is carefully knitting
a sweater for her grandson, who is a freshman.
A grammatical analysis of this sentence is as follows:
The is a definite article modifying the noun lady.
little and old are adjectives modifying the noun lady.
lady is a noun used as subject of the sentence.
across is a preposition introducing the prepositional phrase;
the, a definite article modifying the noun street; street, a
noun used as object of the preposition across. The entire
prepositional phrase, across the street, is used as an ad-
jective modifying lady.
is is an auxiliary verb which with the present participle
knitting forms the present progressive tense, active voice,
and is the predicate of the sentence.
carefully is an adverb modifying the compound verb is
knitting.
a is an indefinite article modifying sweater, which is a noun
used as direct object of the verb is knitting.
for is a prepositian; her, the possessive pronoun, third person
singular feminine, referring to lady and modifying grand-
son; grandson, a noun, the object of the preposition for.
The entire prepositional phrase, for her grandson, is used
480
SENTENCE ANALYSIS AND DIAGRAMING
102
as an adverb, modifying is knitting, if we think of the
phrase as being closely associated with and tied to the
verb phrase is knitting; if, however, we think of for her
grandson as closely associated with sweater, then both by
logic and common sense we can call it a prepositional
phrase used as an adjective, modifying sweater.
who is a relative pronoun, nominative case, referring to
grandson and used as the subject of is; is is a linking verb;
a is an indefinite article modifying freshman; and fresh-
man is a predicate noun after a linking verb. The group of
words, who is a freshman, is an adjective clause modifying
grandson.
Lacking the skill (or knowledge) needed to analyze sen-
tences as indicated above, many students find diagraming of
value. This is a mechanical device by which you are aided
in identifying words as parts of speech, in identifying
phrases and clauses, and in indicating the uses or functions
in a sentence of these words, phrases, or clauses. These
purposes of diagraming are accomplished through the use
of lines: horizontal lines, perpendicular lines, slanting lines,
curved lines, and dotted lines.
But remember that diagraming, although it seems like a
game, is only a means to an end, not an end in itself; it is
simply a device to help you identify and see the relationships
between various parts of a sentence.
The important parts of the sentence are put on lines in the
positions indicated in the following skeleton diagram.
subject (noun) | predicate (verb) | object (noun)
object of preposition
481
SENTENCE ANALYSIS AND DIAGRAMING
Filled in, such a diagramed sentence might read:
friend
letters
The simple subject, the simple predicate, the direct object,
the object complement, the predicate noun (or pronoun),
and the predicate adjective are written on the main long
horizontal line. Subject and predicate are separated by a
perpendicular line intersecting the horizontal line. The direct
object is separated from the verb by a short perpendic-
ular line extending up from the horizontal line. The object
complement, the predicate noun or pronoun, or the predi-
cate adjective is separated by a short slanting line extending
leftward from the horizontal line.
Children
subject
We
like
candy
predicate verb object
have elected | John \ captain
subject predicate verb phrase direct object object complement
subject
This
is
\
he
subject
predicate
(linking verb)
predicate pronoun
Father
will be
\
glad
predicate
(linking verb)
predicate adjective
482
SENTENCE ANALYSIS AND DIAGRAMING
102
Dashes or dotted lines (usually perpendicular) are used
to join, and the conjunction is written along or across such
a line. In the following sentence, notice the compound
subject, the compound predicate, and the compound object.
Freshmen and sophomores read or write stories and es-
says.
Freshmen
read
stories
write
Slanting lines below the horizontal line are used for ad-
jective and adverbial modifiers. Each adjective or adverb is
on a separate slanting line.
The old man slowly but carefully signed his name.
signed
Y
.1\%^
483
SENTENCE ANALYSIS AND DIAGRAMING
An adverb modifying an adjective or another adverb is
written on an additional slanting line (or a stair-step line),
thus:
The very old man walked extremely slowly.
walked
\-
Prepositional phrases are attached below the words they
modify by a slanting line for the preposition and a horizontal
line for the object of the preposition. Any adjectives modify-
ing this object are, as already indicated, written on a slanting
line,
A friend of my father gave me the book with the red
cover. (Note how me — the indirect object — is dia-
gramed. )
friend
Participial and infinitive phrases (as adjectives or ad-
verbs) are attached to the words they modify by means of
a line that ciurves into a horizontal line. Any objects, ad-
jectives, or adverbs in these phrases are placed as indicated
above.
484
SENTENCE ANALYSIS AND DIAGRAMING
The man wearing the brown hat is the man to be nomi-
nated for president.
A gerund phrase or an infinitive phrase used as a noun is
put on a horizontal line supported by a vertical line placed
to indicate whether such a phrase is the subject, object,
predicate noun, etc. A noun clause or an infinitive phrase
with a subject is similarly supported. Within these phrases
or clauses, objects, adjectives, adverbs, and the like, are
placed as indicated above.
Gerund phrase as subject of a verb:
Occasionally reading a good book is a worthy achieve-
ment.
reading I book
\
achievement
485
1%^d2C SENTENCE ANALYSIS AND DIAGRAMING
Infinitive phrase as predicate noun:
A precept worthy to be followed by everyone is freely to
forgive your enemies.
to forgive | enemies
An infinitive phrase with a subject:
Henry asked me to lend him my dictionary.
me I to lend
He
nry I asked i yA.
dictionary
him
^
Noun clause as subject:
What you say has convinced me.
You
say what
A I has convinced me
486
SENTENCE ANALYSIS AND DIAGRAMING
Noun clause as object:
John said that he had studied his lesson faithfully.
he had studied lesson
John
said
that
I
^.
Absolute
phrases are similarly placed on a vertically sup-
ported line but are enclosed in brackets:
The tire being repaired, we continued our journey.
r tire
-A.
we
continued { journey
V
A vertical dotted line serves to link adjective clauses to
the noun modified; adverbial clauses to the proper word in
the independent clause; and one independent clause to
another. Any conjunction expressed is written across the
dotted line.
Adjective clauses:
Men who work diligently usually succeed.
Men
succeed
wnc
work
487
102
SENTENCE ANALYSIS AND DIAGRAMING
I met a friend whom I like.
I I met I friend
— „-
I j\°
I like I whom
Adverbial clauses:
We won the game because we had the better team.
We
won I game
I
because
I
I
I we
had i team
Mary is taller than her mother is.
Mary ?s\ taller
tnan
! mother
is\ (tall)
John drives faster than he should drive.
John
drives
than
I he I should drive
488
SENTENCE ANALYSIS AND DIAGRAMING
Compound sentence:
I like movies, but John prefers radio dramas.
I I like I
moves
but
{ John
prefers I dramas
Sometimes a sentence may contain parts in inverted or
transposed order; these parts must be put in the proper
places in the diagram according to the directions ahready
given.
Never again will John see so exciting a game.
John
will see
game
T
10.
EXERCISE 8
Diagram the following sentences:
You may borrow my pen.
The Smiths saw many interesting sights on their trip.
I am painting my car green.
Father has appointed Mary his secretary.
You will be our next treasiuer.
An athletic victory is usually a joyful occasion.
The day is becoming colder and more gloomy.
Edison has been famous for a long time.
Books, magazines, and newspapers are available in the H-
brary.
Busy people receive and send many letters.
489
SENTENCE ANALYSIS AND DIAGRAMING
EXERCISE 9
Diagram the following sentences:
1. Henry has worked faithfully to achieve his ambition.
2. Your winning the election so easily surprised everyone.
3. Tomorrow I shall begin taking regular exercise.
4. To recognize one's errors is to take the first step toward
improvement.
5. The host invited us to come early and to stay late.
6. That I might have the pleasure of your company is my
desire.
7. Father wrote that he would arrive on Friday.
8. We returned to college yesterday, our vacation having ended.
9. The college which I am attending is a small one.
10. To thoughts of love, in the springtime, often turns the fancy
of a young man — and that of some old ones, too.
EXERCISE 10
Diagram the following sentences:
1. I am looking forward to your coming to the university in
September.
2. John wrote to Mr. Rrown, who had promised him a job for
the summer.
3. Driving carefully on icy roads is necessary in order to pre-
vent accidents.
4. On this wintry day the weather outside is frightful but the
weather inside is delightful.
5. Our first item of business today is to call the roll.
6. I am telephoning what I have to say and then am confirming
it by letter.
7. People who make no provision for the morrow are like the
five foolish virgins who are mentioned in the Bible.
8. Charles claims to be a better golfer than I am, but I dare
him to prove it.
9. When I received your telegram, I dropped everything and
came at once.
10. Always to be remembered is that traflBc regulations are de-
vised and enforced for the safety of drivers, passengers, and
pedestrians.
490
INDEX
The figures in this index refer to pages.
Abbreviations, avoiding in
fonnal v^'riting, 226
in business letters, 427
in footnotes, 226
period after, 216-217
of titles, 155, 427
Absolute phrase, in awkward
construction, 333
to begin sentence, 333
defined, 52
to end sentence, 358
punctuation of, 190
use of noun in, 5
Accent marks, 242, 243
Accept, except, 293
Active voice, defined, 12, 61
form, 18-23
Adapt, adopt, 293
Address, forms of, 427
Adjectives, a, an, 24
agreement with nouns, 140
articles, 24
comparison of, 137-139
defined, 24
as modifiers, 134
overuse of, 141
predicate, 24
usage, 134-141
uses of, 24
after verbs of senses, 136
Adverbial objective, 6, 26
Adverbs, as modifiers, 134
comparison of, 137-139
conjunctive, 47
defined, 25
overuse, 141
usage, 134-141
uses of, 25-26
after verbs of senses, 136
Affect, effect, 293
Agree, with prepositions, 270,
271
Agreement, of pronoun with an-
tecedent, 84-86, 349
of verb with subject, 70-84
All, in comparisons, 340
number of, 75
All right, 294
Alliteration, 53, 290
Among, between, 294
Ampersand, 226
Analogies in college entrance ex-
aminations, 473-474
And, punctuation with, 164-165
use of parallel structure with,
343-344
And etc., 294
Antecedent, clear, 91
defined, 53
pronoun agreement with, 84-
86, 349
of relative pronoun, 79
Antonym and synonym, tests in
choosing, 470-471
Any in comparisons, 75, 139,
339
Any place, 294
Anywhere, 273, 294
Apostrophe, cautions in use of,
203-205
in compound phrases, 202-203
in contractions, 203, 205
in pltu-als of letters or figures,
203
to show joint ownership, 202
to show possession, 201-202
Appositive, case, 5, 103
defined, 53
punctuated, 185
Articles, including necessary, 320
use of, 24, 292
As, like, 143-144
At home, 270
Auxiliary defined, 12, 54
Awkward constructions, 333
491
INDEX
Bad, badly, 137
Balanced sentences, 354
Being, misused as conjunction,
334
Believes, beliefs, 253
Beside, besides, 28, 294-295
Between, among, 27
Bibliography, 421
form of footnotes, 418-420
Blowed, 118
Brackets, 222-223
Bring, take, 295
Bursted, bust, busted, 295
Business letters, 425-438
abbreviations in, 427
adjustment, 437
appearance of, 426
of application, 432-434
body of, 428
characteristics of, 428
complimentary close of, 429
form of, 429-431
hackneyed expressions in, 428
heading of, 426-427
of inquiry, 435-436
inside address of, 427
margin of, 426
order, 434-435
paragraphs in, 432-433
participial phrases in, 429
plan of, 425-426
punctuation in, 430-431
salutation in, 427-428
signature in, 429
wasted words in, 431
But, as preposition, 98
punctuation with, 164-165
Can, may, 295
Cannot help but, 270, 295
Cant hardly, 296
Capital letters, in abbreviations
of titles, 155
cautions about, 156
for classes in school, 155
in direct quotations, 208-209
for events in history, 155
for father, mother, 153, 156
in lists, 153
for months, days of the week,
153
for names of cities, bodies of
water, etc., 154
in names for Deity, 155
for names of holidays, 153
492
for names of political and reli-
gious groups, 154
for names and titles, 153
north, south, east, west, 154
in outlines, 152
in parts of letters, 155, 156
in poetry, 152
in quotations, 152, 208
races, languages, nationalities,
154
in resolutions, 152
for school subjects, 155, 156
in titles, 152-153
Card catalogue, use of, 399-400
Case, 4-6, 97-108
of appositive, 5, 103
of complement of infinitive to
be, 102
defined, 54
of indirect object, 5, 98
nominative, uses of, 4—5
of object of preposition, 5, 97-
98
of object of verb, 5, 97-98
of object of verbal, 5, 102
objective, uses of, 5-6
possessive, 6, 103, 201-205
of predicate nominative, 4, 97
of pronoun in elliptical clause,
99
of subject of infinitive, 6, 102-
103
of subject of verb, 4, 97
Catch phrases, 459
Clauses, adjective, 38
adverbial, 40-41
of cause, 41
in complex sentences, 47
of concession, 41
of condition, 40
defined, 37-38
of degree or comparison, 41
dependent, 38-43, 47-48
misuse of, 273-274, 314-315
elliptical, 56, 99, 332
independent, 37-38, 47-48
kinds of, 37-43
with like and as, 143-144
of manner, 40
misplaced, 323
misuse as sentences, 48
nonrestrictive, 180-182
noun, 43, 358
omission of that in, 43, 320
in parallel structure, 343
INDEX
of place, 40
punctuation of, 165, 168-170,
172-173, 177-178, 180-
182, 193-194
of purpose, 41
relative, 38
of result, 41
subordinate, 38, 47, 351
of time, 40
Cliches, 275-276
Climax for emphasis, 355
Coherence, order of details, 374-
375
in sentences, 319, 348-349
transitional devices for, 378-
380
Collective nouns, agreement of
pronouns with, 85
agreement of verbs with, 74
College entrance tests, bibliog-
raphy for, 479-480
form and content, 476
ColloquiaUsms, 240, 268-269
Colon, cautions in use, 197, 198
to introduce a formal state-
ment, 197
to introduce a list, 197
after salutation of letter, 198
in writing time, 198
Comma, with absolute expres-
sions, 190
with appositives, 185
after complimentary close of
letter, 189
with conjunctive adverbs, 178
in contrasted coordinate ele-
ments, 189
before coordinating conjunc-
tion, 164-165
in direct quotations, 189-190,
208, 210
errors in use of, 309-311
after introductory element,
168-169
with limiting expressions, 188
with nonrestrictive phrases and
clauses, 180-182
with parenthetical expressions,
177-178
after salutation of letter, 189
in series, 172-173
with terms of direct address,
178
after yes and no, 178
Comparative degree, 137-139
Compare, use with prepositions,
270, 271
Comparison, of adjectives and
adverbs, 137-139
clear, 340
defined, 54
incomplete and illogical, 339-
340
as means of developing para-
graph, 372
with other and else, 75, 139, 339
Complement, defined, 54-55
objective, 6, 55
predicate, 4, 24
subjective, 4, 55
Comply to, comply with, 270
Compound words, hyphen in,
220-221
plural of, 253
possessive of, 202-203
Conjugation, defined, 55
of drive, 18-23
Conjunctions, coordinating, 28,
164-165, 343, 350-351
punctuation with, 164r-165
in coordination and subordina-
tion, 350-351
correlative, 28
defined, 28
kinds of, 28
subordinating, 28, 43
usage of, 143-144
Conjunctive adverbs, defined, 55
examples of, 47
punctuation with, 47, 178, 193
Connotation, 280, 281
Constructions, awkward, 333
impersonal, 57
mixed, 337-338
shift in, 131, 348-349
split, 327-328
Contend, with prepositions, 270
Continual, continuous, 296
Contractions, in formal writing,
226-227
use of apostrophe in, 203, 205
Coordinating conjunction, de-
fined, 28
overuse of, 350-351
use of comma before, 164—165
use of parallel structure with,
343
Coordination, 350-351
Copulative verb {see Linking
verb)
493
INDEX
Could of, 118
Dangling expressions, 329-334
Dash, 21&-219
Data, 76
Dates, writing of, 228
Declension, 56
Definition as means of develop-
ing paragraph, 371
Denotation, 280, 281
Despite of, 338
Diacritical marks, 242
Diagraming, 480-488
Diction, concrete 280-281
figurative language, 291-292
"fine writing," 282
foreign expressions, 262, 284
glossary of faulty expressions,
292-302
mixed figures, 292
vigorous verbs, 281
wordiness, 278-279, 285-286,
431
Dictionaries, accent marks in,
243
antonyms in, 241
capitalization in, 236
comparison of adjectives in,
236
compound words in, 236
diacritical marks in, 242
parts of speech in, 237
plurals of nouns in, 236
pronunciation in, 237, 242-244
selection of, 231-232
spelling in, 232-234, 244
syllabification in, 236-237
synonyms in, 241
use of, 232-242
vocabvilary entry in, 233
Die of, die with, 270
Differ, use with prepositions,
270, 271
Different than, different from,
143, 270
Direct address, 56
Direct object, 5, 97, 102, 106,
107
Done, incorrect use of, 117
Don't and doesn't, 71
Double negative, can't hardly,
296, 338
Doubt if, doubt whether, 270
Drawed, 118
Due to, 140
494
Each, either, agreement of ante-
cedent with, 84-85
as subjects, 73, 77
Eats, as noun, 273
Economics, 74
Effect, affect, 293
Either . . . or, parallel structure
with, 344
Ellipsis defined, 56
Elliptical clauses, case of pro-
nouns in, 99
complete thought implied, 308
dangling, 332
Emphasis, 352-353
Ethics, 74
Euphony, 289-290
Even, misplaced, 323
Everybody, in informal speech,
73, 74, 85
pronoun agreement with, 85
verb agreement with, 73
Example as means of developing
paragraph, 371-372
Except, accept, 293
Exclamation point, 217
witli quotation marks, 210
Expletive, 56
Fall off of, 286
False dilemma, 458
Female, 297
Fewer, less, 140, 297
Figures, use of, 227-228
Figures of speech, alliteration,
290
avoiding mixed, 292
hyperbole, 292
metaphor, 291, 292
metonymy, 292
personification, 291
simile, 291
"Fine" writing, 282-284
Finite verb, 56
Firstly, 137
Footnotes, 417-420
Foreign expressions, 262, 284
use of italics for, 225
Foreign nouns, plurals of, 75,
253
Fractions, agreement widi verbs,
75
Friendly letters (see Social
letters )
Gender defined, 56-57
INDEX
Gerund, dangling phrase, 330
defined, 15-16, 57
distinguished JFrom participle,
203-204
form, 15-16
modifiers of, 15-16
object of, 6, 15, 102
possessive case before, 103,
203-204
Glossary, faulty expressions, 292-
302
grammatical terms, 52-61
Good and well, 137
Graduated from, 270, 298
Grammar defined, 57
Guilt by association, 464-465
Hackneyed expressions, 275-
276, 428
Hardly, misplaced, 323
Hisself, 99
Honorable, used as title, 427
Hyperbole, 292
Hyphen, 220-222
Identical to, identical with, 270
Idioms, 269-271
defined, 57
Illogical constructions, 337-338
Impatient, with prepositions, 270
Imperative mood, 13, 22, 48, 129
Impersonal construction, 57
Improprieties, 273—274
In, into, 299
In regard to, 271
Incidentally, 259
Indexes for research, 403-406
Indicative mood, 18-20, 129
Indirect object, 5, 98, 106
Infinitive, complement of to be,
102, 107
defined, 16
form, 16, 21
modifiers of, 16
object of, 6, 16, 102 107
omission of to before, 16
split, 328
subject of, 6^ 102, 107
tense of, 125
uses, 16
Infinitive phrases, 30-32, 34
dangling, 332
Inflection, 57
Interjection, 57
Intransitive verb, 11, 57
Inverted order, 58
Irregardless, 299
It, impersonal, 92
It, they, indefinite, 91, 92
Itahcs (underlining), 224-225
Its, it's, 205
Jargon, 278-279
in business letters, 431
Kind of, 140
Less and least, 137
Let, leave, 299
Letters, capitalization in, 155,
156
(See also Business letters;
Social letters)
Levels of usage, 62-64, 239-241
Liable, likely, 299
Library, use of card catalogue,
399-400
use of indexes, 403-406
use of reference books, 401-
402
Lie and lay, 120
Like, as, 143-144
Linking verb, 11, 24, 58
Listen at, listen to, 270
Listening, propaganda tech-
niques, 462-466
thinking in, 456-459
whom to believe, 453-454
Lists, capital letters in, 153
parallel structure in, 153, 344
Manuscript form, 396-397
May, might, 295
Measles, 74
Meet up with, 286
Metaphor, 291
Metonymy, 292
Mixed constructions, 337-338
Mixed figures of speech, 292
Modifiers, adjectives and ad-
verbs, 24-26
danghng, 329-334
defined, 58
misplaced, 322-323
overuse of, 283-284
squinting, 323
Mood, 12-13, 129-131
defined, 58
imperative, 13, 22, 48, 129
indicative, 12, 18-20, 129
495
INDEX
shift in, 131, 349
subjunctive, 13, 22-23, 130-
131
Most, almost, 300
Myself, himself, 10, 98
Name calling, 463
Namely, punctuation with, 194,
198
Nauseous, nauseated, 300
Nominative absolute (see Abso-
lute phrase)
Nominative case, 4—5
of personal pronouns, 97, 99
of relative pronouns, 105
Non sequitur, 458-459
None, 75
agreement with verb, 73, 75
Nonrestrictive modifiers, 34,
180-182
Note taking, 410-414
Noun clauses, 43, 358
Noun phrases, 30-31
Nouns, in absolute expression, 5
abstract, 2
adverbial objective, 6, 26
appositive, 5
capitalized, 2
case of, 4-6, 201-205
collective, 2, 74, 85
common, 2
defined, 2
in direct address, 5, 178
as direct object of verb, 5, 97
foreign plurals, 75, 253
gender, 3, 56-57
as indirect object of verb, 5
kinds of, 2
misused as verbs, 273
number of, 3
as object of gerund, 6
as object of infinitive, 6, 16
as object of participle, 6
as object of preposition, 5
as object of verb, 5, 97
(See also Object)
as objective complement, 6, 55
plural of, 3, 75, 251-254
predicate, 4, 76
as predicate complement, 4
as predicate nominative, 4
proper, 2
as subject of infinitive, 6
as subject of verb, 4
(See also Subject)
496
as subjective complement, 4
Ntmiber, defined, 58
of nouns, 3
Number, as subject of verb, 75
Numbers, at beginning of sen-
tence, 228
commas in, 228
use of St, nd, rd after, 228
written in figures, 227-228
written in words, 228
Object, defined, 59
direct, 5, 97, 102, 106, 107
of gerund, 6, 15
indirect, 5, 98, 106
of infinitive, 6, 16, 102, 107
of participle, 6
of preposition, 5, 97-98, 106
of verb, 5, 97, 102, 106, 107
Objective case, 5-6
of personal pronouns, 97-99,
102
of relative pronouns, 106-108
Objective complement, 6, 55
Only, misplaced, 323
Other, else, in comparisons, 75,
139, 339
Outhnes, 387-395
capitalization in, 152
for research paper, 414-415
Oversimplification, 457-458
Paragraph, 364-382
in business letters, 432^33
in dialogue, 382
length of, 381-382
mechanics of, 382
methods of development, 370-
373
order of details in, 374, 389
proportion of, 381-382
substance of, 369-370
topic sentence in, 364—367
transitional device in, 378-380
Parallel constructions, in lists,
153, 344
in sentences, 342-344
shift in mood, 131
Parallelism defined, 59
Paraphrase, 424
Parentheses, 222-223
Parenthetical expressions, 59
punctuated, 177-178, 222-223
Participial phrases, 15, 30, 32
avoiding in letters, 429, 452
INDEX
dangling, 329-330
Participles, as adjectives, 14-15
defined, 14, 59
distinguished from gerunds,
203-204
form of, 13-15, 20
object of, 6, 102
past, confused with past tense,
117-118
present, 125
as principal part of verb, 13,
112-117
sequence of tenses with, 125
Passive voice, defined, 12, 61
form, 20-21
Past tense, confused with past
participle, 117-118
uses of, 123-124
Per diem, 284
Percent, 217, 228
Period, after abbreviations, 216-
217
at end of sentence, 216
error in use, 307-308
Periodic sentences, 354
Person, defined, 59
of pronouns, 8
Personification, 291
Phrases, adjective, 30, 32, 34
adverbial, 30, 34
danghng, 329-332
defined, 29, 60
gerund, 30, 31
infinitive. 30-32, 34, 332
kinds of, 30-34
misplaced, 322, 323
noun, 30-31
participial, 15, 30, 32, 329-
330, 429, 452
position of, 29, 322, 323
prepositional, 30, 32, 34, 71
punctuation of, 34, 169-170,
172-173, 177-178, 180-
182
restrictive and nonrestrictive,
34
^^ verb, 12, pO, 61, 327-328
"Plain folks" technique, 464
Plan on going, 270
Plural of nouns, 3, 75, 251-254
Politics, number of, 74
Possessive case, 6
and apostrophe, 201-205
before gerunds, 103, 203-204
of pronouns, 103, 203, 205
Precis, 422-423
Predicate, 60
Predicate adjective, 24
Predicate complement, 4
Predicate nominative, 4, 76
personal pronoun as, 97
relative pronoun as, 105
Predicate noun (see Predicate
nominative )
Predicate objective, 5, 55
Prepositional phrase, 30, 32, 34
following subject, 71
Prepositions, defined, 27, 60
at end of sentence, 271
idiomatic use of, 270
including necessary, 320
list of, 27
pronoun as object of, 97-98,
106
usage of, 143-145
Present perfect tense, 19, 21, 23
uses of, 123-124
Principal, principle, 301
Pronouns, agreement of, with
antecedents, 84-86, 349
with verbs, 73-74
case of, 8, 97-108, 203, 205
compound, 10, 98
defined, 8
demonstrative, 9
including necessary, 320
indefinite, 10, 73-74, 85-86,
91-92
intensive, 10, 84-85
interrogative, 9-10, 105-106
kinds of, 8-10
personal, 8, 97
as predicate nominatives, 97,
105
as objects, 98, 102
reference of, 91-94
reflexive, 10, 98-99
relative, 8, 9, 79, 105
as subjects, 73-74, 97
Pronunciation, 242-244
accent marks, 243
diacritical marks, 242
in dictionaries, 237
Propaganda techniques, associa-
tion with something pleas-
ant, 462
guilt by association, 464-65
name calling, 463
"plain folks," 464
using statistics, 465-466
497
INDEX
Providing that, 270
Provincialisms, 268
Punctuation, apostrophes, 201-
205
in business letters, 430-431
colon, 197-198
comma, 164-190
dash, 218-219
direct quotations, 208-210
exclamation point, 210, 217
foreign phrases, 225
parentheses, 222-223
period, 216-217
question mark, 210, 217
semicolon. 47, 165, 178, 192-
194
titles of books, plays, etc., 211,
224
Question mark, 217
with quotation marks, 210
Quotation marks, cautions in use,
208-211
in direct quotations, 208-209
for paragraphs of conversa-
tion, 209
placement of, 210
single, 209-210
for slang, 211
with technical terms, 210
in titles, 211
Quotations, capitalization in,
152, 208
indirect, 337
punctuation of, 208-209
Rationalization, 457
Readers' Guide, use of, 404, 406
Real, very, 134, 273
Redundancy, 285-286, 294
Reference books, 401-406
Relative pronoun, agreement of
verb with, 79
case, 105-108
Repetition for emphasis, 353
Reports, characteristics of, 442-
444
form of, 444-445
gathering material for, 441
plan of, 442
references for, 440
types of, 440
Research papers, 398-421
bibliography for, 410, 421
choosing topic, 407-409
introductory paragraph in, 416
498
limiting the topic, 408-409
outhning, 387-395, 414-415
paragraphs in, 416
revision of, 416
taking notes for, 410^13
topics for, 407-408
use of footnotes, 412, 417-420
using library for, 398-406
Restrictive modifiers, 34, 180-
182
Reverend, 226, 427
Rewarded, with prepositions, 271
Rhyme, 290
Round, 139
R.S.V.P., 263
Same, 94, 301-302
Seen and saw, 117
Semicolon, cautions in use, 193
before conjunctive adverbs, 47,
178, 193
with coordinating conjunc-
tions, 165, 193
before namely, for example,
194
to separate independent
clauses with no connect-
ing links, 192
in series, 194
Sentence fragments, 307-309
Sentences, balanced, 354
choppy, 318
coherence in, 319, 348-349
complex, 47
compound, 47
compound-complex, 48
coordination and subordina-
tion in, 350-351
defined, 46
elliptical, 308
fused, 312
illogical, 337-338
incomplete, 307-308, 319-321
kinds of, 46-48
loose and periodic, 354
rambling, 317
"run-on," 309-311
shift in construction, 131, 348-
349
simple, 46
subject of (see Subject)
topic, 364-367
unity in, 316-321
variety in, 355-358
Series, parallel structure in, 343-
344
INDEX
punctuation of, 172-173, 194
Shall, will, 124
Shifts, in mood, 349
in person or number, 349
in subject, 348
in tense, 348
in voice, 348
Should, would, 124-125
Simile, 291
Sister-in-law, plural and posses-
sive, 203
Sit and set, 120-121
Slang, 114, 274-275
Slow, slowly, 137
So, so that, 321
Social letters, avoiding the ob-
vious and trite, 451
bread and butter, 449
choosing material for, 451
formal invitations and replies,
446
informal invitations and re-
plies, 447-448
margins in, 452
participial phrases in, 452
sympathy, 450
thank you, 448-449
type of stationery, 452
Some, agreement of verb with,
73, 75
incorrect use, 134
Spelling, adding -ally, 259
adding suffixes, 255-259
doubling consonant before
suffix, 257-258
lists of words often misspelled,
248-251
plurals, 251-254
and pronunciation, 245
rules for, 251-259
words ending in -ihle or
-able, 257
words ending in y, 256
words with ei, ie, 254
words with final e, 255
Split construction, 327-328
Statistics, 462-466
Subject, agreement of verb with,
70-79
compound, 46, 77
defined, 60-61, 70
followed by prepositional
phrase, 71
following verb, 58, 70
illogical construction with, 337
of infinitive, 6, 102, 107
introduced by there or liere, 71
joined by either . . . or, 77
pronoun used as, 73, 97
Subjective complement, 4
Subjunctive mood, 13, 22-23,
130-131
Subordinating conjunctions, 28,
43
Subordination, 350—351
Substantive defined, 61
Superlative degree, 137-139
Sure, surely, 134, 273
Suspicion, 302
misused as verb, 273
Syllabification, 220-222
Synonym and antonym, tests in
choosing, 470—471
Syntax defined, 61
Tense, defined, 13, 61
in dramatic narrative, 123, 124
forms of, 18-23
future, 18, 20, 124
future perfect, 19, 21, 125
past, uses of, 123-124
in statements permanently
true, 123
uses of, 122-125
Tests, choosing antonym or
synonym, 470-471
college entrance, 472, 476-480
completing analogies, 473-474
matching definitions and
words, 469-470
vocabulary, 469-476
Than, as, case after, 99
That, omission of, 43, 320
That there, 140
Theirselves, 99
Them, incorrect use of, 99
Themes, analyzing material for,
388
beginnings and endings, 396
choosing core thought, 387-
388
choosing topic, 383-386
manuscript form, 396-397
preparing outline, 387-395
revising and proofreading, 397
topics for, 384-386
unity in, 387-388
There and here, introducing sub-
jects, 71
Thinking, bibliography, 467-468
in listening, 456-459
poor, types of, 457—459
499
INDEX
propaganda techniques, 426-
466
in reading, 453-454
This here, 140
This kind of, 140
To home, 270
Topic sentence, as aid to para-
graph unity, 365
defined, 364
imphed, 367
position of, 365-366
Transitional devices, 378-380
Transitive verb, 11
defined, 61
Triteness, 275-276
in business letters, 428
Try to, try and, 269
Unique, 139
Unity, in paragraphs, 364-367
in sentences, 316-321
Unless, without, 144
Usage levels, 62-64, 239-241
Variety in sentences, 355-358
Verb phrase, 30
defined, 12, 61
keeping parts together, 327-
328
Verbals, defined, 14, 61
finite verbs compared with, 14
kinds of, 14-16
objects of, 6, 15, 16, 102, 106,
107
modifiers of, 15-16
Verbs, active, 12, 18-19, 61
agreement with subjects, 70-
79
auxiliary, 12, 54
conjugation of, 18—23
copulative {see linking, be-
low)
defined, 11, 70
definite subject with, 337
finite, 56
imperative, 13, 22, 48, 129
including necessary, 319-320
indicative, 12, 18-20, 129
intransitive, 11, 57
kinds of, 11
linking, 11, 24, 58
misused as noans, 273
mood of, 12-13, 58, 129-131
passive, 12, 20-21, 61
principal parts of , 13, 112-117
500
past tense and past participle,
misuse of, 117-118
regular and irregular (strong
and weak), 13, 14, 112
subjunctive, 13, 22-23, 130-
131
tense, 13, 61, 1&-23, 122-133
to be, 4, 97
transitive, 11, 61
usage, 112-131
vigorous, use of, 281
voice, 12, 18-21, 61, 349
Vocabulary, development of,
259-267
tests in, 469-476
Voice, 18-21
defined, 12, 61
shifts in, 348
Vulgarisms, 273
Wait on, wait for, 270
What, 86
Which, indefinite, 92-93
Who, which, that, 79, 86
Who, whom, 105-108
Whoever, whomever, 108
Whose, who's, 205
Without, unless, 144
Wordiness, 285-286
in business letters, 431
in jargon, 278-279
Words, colloquial, 240, 268-269
compound, 220-221
concrete and specific, 280-281
denotation and connotation,
280, 281
direct, simple, 278-279
emotional content, 62, 463
foreign expressions, 225, 262,
284
frequently mispronounced, 243
frequently misspelled, 245—
246, 248-251
general and specific, 281
glossary of faulty expressions,
292-302
incorrect omission of, 320
order of, 322-323
short, 282-283
syllabification of, 220-222
Writing, business letters, 425-
438
"fine," 282-284
reports, 439-445
You, indefinite, 92
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Grammar
1. Nouns
2. Pronouns
3. Verbs and Verbals
4. Adjectives and Adverbs
5. Prepositions and Conjunc-
tions
6. Phrases
7. Clauses
8. Sentences
9. Glossary o£ Grammatical
Terms
Usage
10. Diagnostic Tests
11. Subject and Verb Agree-
ment
12. Pronoun and Antecedent
Agreement
13. Reference of Pronouns
14. Case of Pronouns
15. Principal Parts of Verbs
16. Tense of Verbs
17. Mood
18. Adjective and Adverb Us-
age
19. Preposition and Conjunc-
tion Usage
20. Achievement Tests
Capitalization
21. Use of Capital Letters
Punctuation
22. Diagnostic Test
23. The Comma
24. The Semicolon
25. The Colon
26. The Apostrophe
27. Quotation Marks
28. Achievement Tests
29. The Period
30. Exclamation Points and
Question Marks
31. The Dash
32. The Hyphen and Syllabifi-
cation
33. Parentheses and Brackets
34. Italics
35. Abbreviations
36. Numbers
The Word
37. Use of the Dictionary
38. Pronunciation
39. Spelhng
40. Vocabulary Growth
41. Provincialisms
42. Colloquialisms
43. Idioms
44. Vulgarisms
45. Improprieties
46. Slang
47. Triteness
48. Jargon
49. Concrete and Specific
Words
50. "Fine" Writing
51. Wordiness
52. Euphony
53. Figurative Language
54. Glossary of Misused Words
The Sentence
55. Period Fault
56. Comma Fault
57. Fused Sentences
58. Misuse of Dependent
Clauses
59. Related Ideas
60. Rambling Sentences
61. Choppy Sentences
62. Incompleteness
63. Word Order
64. Split Constructions
65. Dangling Modifiers
66. Mixed and Illogical Con-
structions
67. Comparisons
68. Parallel Structure
69. Point of View
70. Coordination and Subordi-
nation
71. Emphasis
72. Variety
73. Achievement Tests
The Paragraph
74. Topic Sentence
75. Substance of a Paragraph
76. Methods of Development
77. Order of Ideas
78. Transitional Devices
79. Proportion and Length
80. Mechanics of the Paragraph
The Whole Theme
81. Choice of Topic
82. Outlines
83. Beginnings and Endings
84. Manuscript Form
85. Revision and Proofreading
The Research Paper
86. Using the Library
87. Choosing the Topic
88. Taking Notes
89. Preparing the Outline
90. Writing the Paper
91. Making Footnotes
92. Making a Bibliography
The Precis and
the Paraphrase
93. The Precis
94. The Paraphrase
Writing for Special Purposes
95. Business Letters
96. Report Writing
97. Social Letters
Listening and Thinking
98. Backgrounds of Writers
and Thinkers
99. Testing Your Logic
100. Propaganda Technique
Appendix
101. Taking Tests
102. Sentence Analysis
and Diagraming
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11